Uiððuiantā's Gaulish Reference

Introduction

Suauelon! Welcome to my Gaulish website. I have compiled together a reference of vocabulary, grammar, declensions, conjugations, and miscellaneous other information for learning Gaulish. I seek to consolidate all surviving knowledge of this wonderful language into an organized resource that makes every piece of information easy to find.

Learning a whole language is a major task. One way to develop familiarity with a new language is to translate things into it: prose, poems, song lyrics, or even your thoughts. Initially, this means jumping around a dictionary and a grammar, looking for all the necessary parts until such time as one memorizes the basics (or at least memorizes where to find the information!) and hopefully becomes fluent. To facilitate this process, I've created this reference to keep everything in one place in a readily accessible tabbed web page format. It is not designed to replace learning Gaulish from lessons, but it can augment the learning process and serve as a stepping stone for "how would I say..." tasks as well as be a reference for whenever one who is otherwise familiar may be unsure of a specific inflection.

The Gaulish Language

Gaulish was spoken in ancient times in western Europe, particularly in what is now France. It's a Celtic language, and is therefore related to languages such as Irish and Welsh. But the modern Celtic languages have changed much over the millennia, and Gaulish looks and sounds a lot more like other ancient European languages such as Latin, Ancient Greek, and Gothic. It is a Continental Celtic language, along with Celtiberian as well as a few poorly attested languages such as Lepontic and Noric that are sometimes considered dialects of Gaulish. This is in contrast to Insular Celtic which includes all modern Celtic languages, other than revival efforts.

Gaulish is classified as a P-Celtic language, like Welsh and Old Brittonic, meaning the ancestral */k^w/ sound changed to /p/ in words like prennon (tree), from earlier *k^wresno-. Indeed, Tacitus noted that the languages of the Gauls and the Brittons of his time "differ little", and many modern scholars have hypothesized a Gallo-Brythonic grouping. But this is unlikely, given that the insular Celtic languages share several grammatical features utterly absent from Gaulish, including consonant mutation, fusion of prepositions with pronouns, and VSO as the neutral word order.

Gaul was not a single unified nation, adhering instead to a tribal system not unlike the ancestral Celtic social structure that probably also gave rise to modern day Scottish clans. The Gauls' lack of national identity meant there was never a standard dialect of Gaulish, so reconstructions sometimes show multiple variants of words, likely corresponding to the speech of villages distant from one another. Some present day scholars would have you believe that Gaul was a monolithic enemy of Rome for a long time, with Rome eventually conquering and wiping out the Gauls, but that is just not true. In reality Rome administered Gaul, teaching Roman customs and the Latin language to Gauls, producing a hybrid Gallo-Roman culture. Studies support the common assertion that, far from being wiped out, the Gauls form a large portion of the ancestors of modern day peoples from formerly Gallic lands.

And while Romans and Celts did fight many battles, Gaul's lack of unity and warrior-focused culture resulted in frequent infighting between neighboring Gaulish groups, and oftentimes one side of a skirmish would ask the Romans for help. Rome soon grew tired of getting dragged into petty squabbles, and since Julius Caesar believed he could settle some of his own monetary debts if Rome annexed Gaul, that's what he effected. The Gaulish chief Uercingetorīxs of the Aruernī united much of Gaul and put up a valiant opposition to Caesar, but even this partial unification came too late and Rome's expertly trained armies and greater resources ultimately won. The Gaulish language unfortunately did become extinct as a result of annexation, declining slowly over hundreds of years, as its former speakers gradually switched to speaking Latin instead. But the fact of Gaulish speakers learning Latin resulted in a unique dialect, with a distinctly Gallic flavor, which would go on to become the Gallo-Romance languages including French.

Gaulish is not particularly well attested, reaching us mostly by way of inscriptions, and efforts to decode these have historically been full of uncertainty. But reconstructions of Gaulish have been accomplished, using other Celtic languages for reference. There are some very nice Gaulish lessons on the Gaulish Polytheism website, with links to a grammar and a lexicon. It is impressive that linguists have been able to make these reconstructions, and the result is a version of Gaulish that can be revived and spoken once more.

Conventions

There are a few variable conventions regarding the orthography of Gaulish.

For the usages of the letter x, I have opted to write xs where it is pronounced /xs/, as in dexsiuos and rīxs. Most authors leave off the S, e.g. dexiuos, rīx, however this website keeps the S.

Some original inscriptions seem to use a long I, commonly transcribed by modern researchers as as í, to represent two different sounds: consonantal-I next to a vowel-I, and long vowel I, for example uediíū-mí. Some modern revival sites opt for a letter J (uediju-mi) to represent the consonantal I, while even the ancients didn't always distinguish between forms of the letter I (uediiu-mi). I have opted to use í here to represent consonantal I next to vowel I, but only as a matter of preference, and admittedly there are still sections that lack acute accents where they would go. Some writers also use W or V for consonantal U, and even K in place of C, which makes for a more robust and unambiguous orthography but isn't as true to the classical inscriptions.

Finally, when writing vowel length, some authors prefer circumflex accents, e.g. mâros, while others prefer to use a macron, e.g. māros. I will be using a macron throughout this site, but again only as a matter of preference.

Sources

My sources for the information on this site include:

Gaulish Language Lessons - Gaulish Paganism;
Iextis Galation, a grammar;
Yextis Keltica, an informative book about the language and culture of the Gauls, including grammar and known inscriptions;
Uoxtlosernis Galatis, a lexicon with many entries, but mostly lacking info about attestations or etymology;
Ueposlougos Nouiogalaticos, apparently an updated version of the previous lexicon, including etymologies for all entries and even some useful neologisms;
Lexilogos Dictionnaire gaulois, a collection of informative links (in French) about Gaulish;
Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic, containing information about attested Gaulish words and stems and their etymologies from PrC;
List of Gaulish inscriptions (in French);
Words attested in Gaulish from French Wiktionary;
French words of Gaulish origin;
The Subjunctive in Celtic, including much information about Gaulish.

Font

The Gaulish font on this website is my own creation, Gaulish.ttf, licensed CC-BY-SA 4.0. It is based on the handwritten style of Gaulish writings, which itself derives from the Roman alphabet. I also have another version of the font that's closer to the way the ancients wrote, but maybe less easily readable to modern eyes, Galaties.ttf, under the same CC-BY-SA license.

"Modern Gaulish"

I no longer maintain a lexicon of Galáthach hAthevíu, as I have opted to focus on the natural language of attested inscriptions rather than alternate history conlangs. Admittedly, even reconstructing "real" Gaulish involves so much guesswork that the line between that and conlanging is a blurry one, so if all you want is something connected to Gaul that sounds beautiful and is easy to learn, Galáthach is a great choice. But it is not the focus of this page. All information about Galáthach can be found on its official website.

Gaulish has a case system similar to that of Latin and Ancient Greek, and not too dissimilar from the case systems of modern languages like Finnish, Russian, German, etc. Although noun cases are unfamiliar to us in English, we do have traces of them, specifically the plain and posessive forms in the singular and plural, e.g. word, word's, words, words'. Our pronouns have cases too: nominative (I, she, he, it, us, they, and the obsolete thou and ye), oblique (me, her, him, it, you, them, and the obsolete thee), genitive (mine, hers, his, its, yours, theirs, and the obsolete thine), and possessive (my, her, his, its, your, their, and obsolete thy). Gaulish cases work very much like English cases; there are just more of them.

Nominative

Generally, this is the case for the subject of a verb, and the case of the predicate with the verb for "to be". It is also the dictionary form.

Intransitive subject: cattus sounāt = the cat is sleeping.
Transitive subject: cattus sagiet lucoten = the cat is pursuing a mouse.
Attributive: mou cattus eðði uimpis = my cat is cute.
Predicative: lucoð rāte garaunos = the mouse ran screaming.

Vocative

Used for addressing the listener.

Appellative: ā caranð! = o friend!
Exclamatory: baite! = fool!

Accusative

The case of the direct object of transitive verbs. Also used with certain prepositions and certain constructs having to do with motion towards.

Direct object: ibū-mī dubron = I am drinking water.
Predicate: ambirādīt-īs-mī caranten = he considers me a friend.
Spatial extent: ceconga-mī decan leucās = I walked for ten leagues (unit of distance).
Temporal extent: ueuorse-i trīs dīūs = it rained for three days.
Destination: tēgū-mī ad attrebin = I'm going home.

Genitive

Used for possessives and for partitives (e.g. "a quantity of air", "some of the meat"). For the most part, this can be thought of as the equivalent for when in English we would say "of". It is also used with certain prepositions. In the Celtic languages, the genitive also has another function, as the direct object of a verbal noun. Since there are no infinitives (e.g. "to see") in Celtic, there is no way to directly say e.g. "I want to see the stars", so instead you would word it as "I want the seeing of stars."

Possessive: dercoi epī = the horse's eyes
Relative: Martialis Dannotālī = Martialis, son of Dannotalos
Relative: rīxs Aruernī = the king of the Arverni
Originative: crou moccī = the blood of the pig
VN object: uelūr-mī pissionen ðirānon = I want to see the stars.
Partitive: gandnon ceruesiās = a can of beer
Partitive: lānon dubrī = full of water
Compositional: laterculos canecī = a brick of gold
Measurement: duī uīcantī blēdniās = 40 years (literally two twenties of years)
Qualitative: drūidessā uissous mārī = a druidess of great wisdom
Qualitative: soruon eðði gdonion = to err is human.

Dative

Functions as an indirect object, e.g. the recipient of giving. It is also used for the meaning of "to have", since there is no verb for this meaning. Instead of "I have", in Gaulish you would say "to me there is", etc. This is actually just like how it is phrased in Ancient Greek.

Benefactive: rīxs rodīsset duxtrē epon = the king gave [his] daughter a horse.
Benefactive: auuedū-mī-id tei = I do it for you.
Benefactive: geganda-mī eiū cloustin = I allowed him to hear.
Benefactive: dubron eðði dagon slāntī = water is good for health.
Detrimental: medu eðði drucon tarssou = drunkenness is bad for thirst.
Direction: eðði-sī burrā eiū = she is angry with him.
Direction: uai dīuixtobo! = woe to the conquered!
Possessive: mi-senti dāu cattií = I have two cats.
Possessive: mīeði carros = I have a car.
Possessive: tīeði uergon auuesseion = you have work to do.
Purpose: petidū-mī so deprū inti eron = I'm saving this to eat later.
Purpose: cecana-mī cantlon tou cloustī = I sang the song for you to hear.
Adjectival complementary: gnātos ei drungobo = you are known to multitudes.
Comparison: so eðði samalon ligī = it's like mud.

Instrumental

Originally, this case, as the name suggests, referred to the instrument or means by which an action was carried out. Over time, it also gained other related meanings, and in Proto-Celtic, it merged with the old ablative, becoming one of the most frequently used cases. In Gaulish, many prepositions govern the instrumental, and with nouns of place or time, the instrumental has even taken over some of the functions of the locative case. It is also the case used with comparatives of nouns.

Means: lelouga-mī sosin rīmātī = I figured it out with a computer.
Means: anegont-ies carron barennicābi = they are decorating the car with seashells.
Agentive: bēton depretor cunī = the food is being eaten by the dog.
Reason: mou cridion canet laueníī = my heart sings with joy.
Reason: ceconga-mī inti exteron nemnalū = I stepped outside because of the celebration.
Principle: reget-sī suesian bessū uariniās = she conducts herself in the manner of the customs of the society.
Location: oinū dercū exsops = blind in one eye
Temporal: sindīū īuos = holiday/festival today
Comparison: lugrā eðði meiā bricē = the moon is bigger than a mountain.
Distance: pelloi emos attrebiā = we are far from home.
Valuation: rira-mī mou būn argantū eti canecū = I sold my cow for silver and gold.
Valuation: rosī buet anuani ollū nepū blatibolatos suadisetos = a rose, by any other name, would smell just as sweet.

Besides the partitive genitive, there is also a partitive preposition u that takes the instrumental case, e.g. ibete-suīs u-ciū = drink (plural) of this.

Locative

The locative is pretty much what it sounds like: expressions of being at or in, or even near, a time or place, but also of being figuratively within something intangible like a situation. From the latter meaning comes the sense of the locative absolute, which is a construction that means "A being the case, B happened," implying that the condition had a role in causing or facilitating the events of the main clause.

Place: attrebī immi = I am at home.
Place: deuiomos-nīs rātā in audū = we burn offerings in a (ceremonial) fire.
Proximity: sistat-īs iagē = he is standing by the window.
Temporal momentative: in sosī anðerī pēlāsan = in that moment I understood.
Temporal habitual: sonnos meget arenoxtī = the sun sets in the evening.
Contextual: sindon uiððus eðði gnāton in uarinī anson = this wisdom is known in our community.
Contextual: eðði-īs dagos uocantlē = he is good at playing music.
Circumstantial: in ammanī tancī iouincoi andecladont senūs; in catū senoi iouincūs = in peacetime the young bury the old; in war the old bury the young.
Absolute: cattē soniaunē uer mou glūnē, ne ateregū = when the cat is on my lap, I don't get up.
Absolute: cliíarē dubrē, snāssan in locū = the water being comfortable/warm, I swam in the lake.

Note the last sentence includes a locative of place as well as a locative absolute.

Phonology

Every language has its own accent, and it's naive to assume that any given ancient language had a simple 5-vowel or 7-vowel system with the same vowel qualities and consonant articulations as whatever modern language the author of a textbook or website speaks. Gaulish must have had many accents, since it was a dialect continuum, so any attempt to reconstruct its accent can at best arrive at a consensus accent that hopefully resembles as much of the continuum as accurately as is reconstructible. Based on which sounds are often interchanged in the lexica, I have reconstructed the following TENTATIVE phonology of Gaulish. I invite others to check my work and come up with their own analyses and compare. Everything in this tab after this sentence should be regarded as an informed guess.

In this section I will be using IPA symbols. The IPA symbols are clickable and will play a recording of their sound.

A modern speaker of English, on hearing Gaulish properly spoken, would notice that the consonants are different from what they are used to hearing. For one thing, the voiceless stops p, t, and c would sound lighter and more gentle than in most languages; whatever their actual sound, the Romans frequently mistook them for b, d, and g, as in Brittania from original Pritannī. Indeed, even the Gauls themselves would mix up d with n, m with consonantal u, and would leave out s between vowels and, in the later stages of the language, at the ends of words, suggesting that all these sounds were pronounced lightly.

Vowels in stressed syllables were probably pronounced clearly and distinctly, as well as having qualitative contrasts, e.g. long E was not simply a longer version of short E. But unstressed vowels would have sounded more muddled, and sometimes disappeared altogether. Even the distinction of short vs. long was not so much one of length, since stressed vowels would have been pronounced long anyway, so a "long" vowel would have just meant one that didn't sound lax and didn't get mumbled if it wasn't stressed.

In recognizing spoken language, the acoustic "shapes" of words and phrases are important. Think of how it is possible in English to say "ah-uh-oh" and be understood as meaning "I don't know", as opposed to something else like "Idaho". Such features as the vowel qualities and quantities and pitch intonation and loudness contour may have been more important to understanding spoken Gaulish than the consonants.

While it is easy to make informed guesses about the exact pronunciation of an extinct language, and write these guesses in IPA letters, that still doesn't capture the distinctive accent of the language. There are no recordings of an L1 Gaulish speaker, so we have to infer from related languages and, to a lesser extent, languages influenced by Gaulish, in order to figure out what it would have sounded like. Without getting too into the details, the answer seems to be: Kind of like Welsh, but lighter on the consonants, a greater inventory of vowels, and perhaps with the same raised-up closed-off [i:] and [u:] that French has.

Accentuation

Gaulish has a stress accent that normally falls on the antepenult (third from last syllable), as evidenced by the strong tendency to delete vowels in the penult (next to last syllable), which can happen whether the ultima (last syllable) is long or short. But if the word has a long penult, then the penult is likely to have the stress. And if the word contains a suffix of more than one syllable with a long ultima, that typically also shifts the accent to the penult. We can see this in the related Brythonic language where the name *Sabrinā ( < *samaro- + *inā) for the river Severn was changed by the Romans to Sabrīna in order to keep the penult accent. Also, in compound words, the stress almost always falls on the last part of the compound, for example catuuiros ( catus + uiros) which would have been stressed on the I. Stressed vowels tended to be pronounced longer than unstressed, but there was still a difference; for example, uiros means man but uīros means true.

Vowels

Each vowel could be short or long. There may or may not have always been a difference in the length it was pronounced, but sometimes there was a difference in the quality of the vowel.

The letter A would have sounded something like [ɑ] most of the time, though unstressed short A probably became [ə]. But when short A was directly followed by L, M, N, or R, it may have sounded something closer to [æ], for example in the word bannā, or the word entar, a variant of enter.

Short E was probably sounded as [ɛ], based on its tendency to be exchanged with both short A and short I. In unstressed syllables short E may have approached the sound of [ə]. Long Ē seems to have been pronounced more closed, less lax, probably as [e:].

Short I was often confused for short E, especially before M and N. It may have been pronounced [ɪ], even approaching the sound of [ɛ] before M or N, as in cinget and pimpe. Otherwise, unstressed short I may have at times approached the sound of [ə]. Short E and short I are almost never confused at the ends of words, so in the word-final position short I may have been pronounced [i]. Long Ī was almost certainly pronounced [i:] in all environments.

Short O was often exchanged for short A, for example locu, lacu, indicating not only that short A usually had a backed sound but also that short O generally had an open sound, probably something like [ɔ]. An exception was in the inflected endings of words such as the very common -os and -on (or -om) endings, where the short O may have been pronounced similarly to the vowel in French comme. Long Ō, on the other hand, is frequently confused for long Ū, indicating that Ō probably had a very backed and rounded pronunciation such as [o:], such as in the preposition dō, also attested as dū.

Short U probably had a lax sound such as [ʊ], since it sometimes traded places with short O in word endings, even causing individual nouns to fall freely into either of two declensions. Long U was almost certainly pronounced very close and rounded. There's some debate as to whether it was pronounced [u:] or fronted like the French U: [y:]. It's unclear whether the French U is due to Gaulish influence, but that seems unlikely. Contact with Germanic languages such as Frankish can explain the existence of front rounded vowels in French, and their existence in Germanic languages is a result of assimilating a front vowel or Y-glide in the next syllable, e.g. fōtus/fōtjus > fōtus/fœ̄tjus > fōt/fœ̄t > fōt/fēt > foot/feet. And if Gaulish had this sound, it probably would have changed to [i:] before the extinction of the language and the modern [y:] would be a later development anyway.

Interestingly, Ancient Greek, a language the Gauls had contact with and held in positive esteem, had the [y:] sound, so the pronunciation of Gaulish U may have been influenced by that. However, the somewhat common error of substituting ō for ū (and vice versa) seems to indicate that if ū was ever pronounced [y:], it was only pronounced that way in some words and syllables, and must have retained its older [u:] value elsewhere. The most parsimonious interpretation is that no, Gaulish did not have the [y:] sound.

Diphthongs

Gaulish diphthongs are ei, ai, oi, eu, au, and ou.

Ei was probably pronounced identically to ē, or else the diphthong merged with the single long vowel as the language evolved. Many words that contain ei are also found with ē in its place, for example leinos / lēnos.

Ai was probably pronounced [aɪ], however in later development of the language its pronunciation began to merge with [ɛ]. The au and eu diphthongs seem to have had a more centralized sound, probably approaching [əʊ], and they began to be confused with each other and sometimes with the ou diphthong.

There aren't many clues to the pronunciation of the oi diphthong, so it's reasonable to assume that it had an [oɪ] pronunciation, since that seems to be the most common way to pronounce oi across a variety of languages. The diphthong ou probably sounded like the English long O, somewhere between [oʊ] and [əʊ].

Consonants

The letter L was always clear and always palatalized (pronounced with the tongue near the roof of the mouth like the sound of the letter Y): [lʲ]. In English we have the so called dark L in words like "full", compared to a clear L in words like "lift", though some English speakers only use a dark L. It's interesting that the letter L in French is also always clear and (almost) always palatalized, but it is not certain whether this feature came from Gaulish or was lost and reintroduced later from Frankish, since Latin had both clear and dark L sounds and the Gallo-Romance language descended from Vulgar Latin, and since the exact pronunciation of the Frankish L is not known. But in Gaulish, L behaves like a palatal consonant in the way it affects nearby sounds.

The letters P, T, and C were pronounced very lightly, almost inaudibly. This caused Romans to mistake them for B, D, G in loan words and names. In Gaulish these sounds were tenuis (lacking aspiration, that is, no puff of air was released) and very gently enunciated. The letter C was also very much subject to palatalization when it came next to a palatal consonant or a front vowel (I or E), such as in melicā, a variant of, and perhaps a hypercorrection for, melatiā. Sometimes, the letters CL in a word would be interchangeable with TL, for example oclon with variant otlon.

The letters B, D, and G also represented lightly pronounced sounds, so that they sometimes switched with M and N. In fact, some of the vowel changes (see above) that happened before M or N also occasionally happened before B, D, or G, such as ligā, variant of legā.

The letters M and N were also gently enunciated, at times sounding almost like a W sound and an R sound, respectively.

The letter S was similarly gentle in its pronunciation, often disappearing between vowels or next to a voiced consonant. It probably had a voiced [z] quality between voiced sounds when it didn't disappear. There doesn't seem to be much evidence about whether or not S after O or U was pronounced backed, with the tip of the tongue near the hard palate and away from the teeth, like it it is thought to have been in classical Latin. However, modern Celtic languages don't do this, and neither does French, so early Gallo-Romance probably didn't, despite being a form of Latin, so Gaulish probably didn't.

The letters I and U could function either as vowels or consonants; when they were consonants they sounded like the letters Y and W in English. Generally, an I or a U is a consonant if it is immediately followed by a vowel. (Occasionally a word like auiíī, "grandson [genitive]" comes along and bends this rule.) When a consonantal I followed a dental consonant (such as T [t], D [d], S [s], or N [n]), it seems to have served to palatalize the consonant to [tʲ], [dʲ], [sʲ], [nʲ], respectively, perhaps without the I having a separate sound of its own. This results in many words with a dental followed by consonantal I having a variant that lacks the consonantal I, such as dolā, dulā as variants of doliā.

Nouns: O-declension Animate

Example: etnos, bird.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nom.	etn-os	etn-ō	etn-ī, etn-oi
Voc.	etn-e	etn-ō	etn-ūs
Acc.	etn-on	etn-ō	etn-ūs
Gen.	etn-ī	etn-ōs	etn-on
Dat.	etn-ū	etn-obon	etn-obo
Ins.	etn-ū	etn-obin	etn-ūs/-obi
Loc.	etn-ē	etn-ou	etn-obi

O-stem animate nouns ending in -ios share the same endings, e.g. anaganntios (fourth month of the year), anaganntie, anaganntion, anaganntii, anaganntiū, etc.

Nouns: O-Declension Neuter

Example: prennon, tree.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
NVA.	prenn-on	prenn-oi	prenn-ā
Gen.	prenn-ī	prenn-ōs	prenn-on
Dat.	prenn-ū	prenn-obon	prenn-obo
Ins.	prenn-ū	prenn-obin	prenn-ūs/-obi
Loc.	prenn-ē	prenn-ou	prenn-obi

O-stem neuter nouns ending in -ion share the same endings, e.g. cridion (heart), cridíī, cridiū, etc.

Nouns: A-Declension

Examples: cantlā, song; blēdnī, year.

	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nom.	cantl-ā	cantl-ī	cantl-ās	blēdnī	blēdnī	blēdniías
Voc.	cantl-a	cantl-ī	cantl-ās	blēdni	blēdnī	blēdniías
Acc.	cantl-in	cantl-ī	cantl-ās	blēdnīn	blēdnī	blēdniías
Gen.	cantl-iās	cantl-iōs, cantl-ious	cantl-ānon	blēdniās	blēdniōs	blēdniānon
Dat.	cantl-ī	cantl-ābon	cantl-ābo	blēdníī	blēdniābon	blēdniābo
Ins.	cantl-ī, cantl-iā	cantl-ābin	cantl-ābi	blēdniā	blēdniābin	blēdniābi
Loc.	cantl-ī	cantl-ābin	cantl-ābi	blēdníī	blēdniābin	blēdniābi

The irregular noun benā, woman, has the following declension:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nom.	benā	mnāi	mnās
Voc.	bena	mnāi	mnās
Acc.	benin, banin	mnāi	mnās
Gen.	mnās	baniōs, banious	mnānon
Dat.	mnāi	mnābon	mnābo
Ins.	mnāi	mnābin	mnābi
Loc.	mnāi	mnābin	mnābi

Nouns: I-Stem Animate

Example: elantis, deer.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nom.	elant-is	elant-ī	elant-īs
Voc.	elant-i	elant-ī	elant-īs
Acc.	elant-in	elant-ī	elant-īs
Gen.	elant-ēs	elant-iōs, elant-ious	elant-iíon
Dat.	elant-ē	elant-ibon	elant-ibo
Ins.	elant-ī	elant-ibin	elant-ibi
Loc.	elant-ī	elant-ibin	elant-ibi

Nouns: I-Stem Neuter

Example: boudi, victory.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
NVA.	boud-i	boud-ī	boud-iíā
Gen.	boud-ēs	boud-iíōs	boud-iíon
Dat.	boud-ē	boud-ibon	boud-ibo
Ins.	boud-ī	boud-ibin	boud-ibi
Loc.	boud-ī	boud-ibin	boud-ibi

Nouns: U-Declension Animate

Example: britus, thought.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nom.	brit-us	brit-ū	brit-oues
Voc.	brit-u	brit-ū	brit-oues
Acc.	brit-un	brit-ū	brit-ūs
Gen.	brit-ous, -ōs	brit-ouō	brit-uion
Dat.	brit-ou, -ō	brit-oubon	brit-oubo
Ins.	brit-ū	brit-oubin	brit-oubi
Loc.	brit-ū	brit-oubin	brit-oubi

Nouns: U-Declension Neuter

Example: locu, lake.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
NVA.	loc-u	loc-ū	loc-uā
Gen.	loc-ous, -ōs	loc-ouō	loc-uion
Dat.	loc-ou, -ō	loc-oubon	loc-oubo
Ins.	loc-ū	loc-oubin	loc-oubi
Loc.	loc-ū	loc-oubin	loc-oubi

A few U-declension nouns have diphthong roots which cause irregular declension, for example:

Nom.	dīus (day)	bous (cow)	cnous (nut)	crou (blood)
Acc.	dīun	būn	cnoun	crou
Gen.	dīuos	bouos	cnouos	crouos

Nouns: Dental-Stem Animate

Example: caranð, friend.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nom.	carans, carant-s, caranð	carant-e	carant-es
Voc.	carans, carant-s, caranð	carant-e	carant-es
Acc.	carant-en	carant-e	carant-ās
Gen.	carant-os	carant-ou, carant-ō	carant-on
Dat.	carant-ē	carant-obon, carand-bon	carant-obo, carand-bo
Ins.	carant-ī	carant-obin, carand-bin	carant-obi, carand-bi
Loc.	carant-ī	carant-obin, carand-bin	carant-obi, carand-bi

A few of these nouns have irregular nominatives, such as noxs, night, gen. noxtos, and moritexs, sailor, gen. moritextos.

Only one neuter dental-stem noun is known:

Declension of dant, tooth.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
NVA.	dant	dant-e	dant-ā
Gen.	dant-os	dant-ou, dant-ō	dant-on
Dat.	dant-ē	dant-obon, dand-bon	dant-obo, dand-bo
Ins.	dant-ī	dant-obin, dand-bin	dant-obi, dand-bi
Loc.	dant-ī	dant-obin, dand-bin	dant-obi, dand-bi

Nouns: Velar Declension

Example: rīxs, king.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nom.	rīx-s	rīg-e	rīg-es
Voc.	rīx-s	rīg-e	rīg-es
Acc.	rīg-en	rīg-e	rīg-ās
Gen.	rīg-os	rīg-ou, rīg-ō	rīg-on
Dat.	rīg-ē	rīg-(o)bon	rīg-(o)bo
Ins.	rīg-ī	rīg-(o)bin	rīg-(o)bi
Loc.	rīg-ī	rīg-(o)bin	rīg-(o)bi

Nouns: Nasal Declension - Animate

Example: cū, dog.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nom.	cū	cun-e	cun-es
Voc.	cū	cun-e	cun-es
Acc.	cun-en	cun-e	cun-ās
Gen.	cun-os	cun-ou, cun-ō	cun-on
Dat.	cun-ē	cun-obon	cun-obo
Ins.	cun-i	cun-obin	cun-obi
Loc.	cun-i	cun-obin	cun-obi

Nouns: Nasal Declension - Neuter

Example: anuan, name.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
NVA.	anuan	anuan-e	anuan-ā
Gen.	anuēs*	anuan-ou, anuan-ō	anuan-on
Dat.	anuan-ē	anuam-bon	anuam-bo
Ins.	anuan-i	anuam-bin	anuam-bi
Loc.	anuan-i	anuam-bin	anuam-bi

*The genitive singular -ēs ending descents from the Proto-Celtic *anmens, genitive of *anman.

Nouns: R Declension

Examples: mātīr, mother; suiūr, sister.

	Singular		Dual		Plural
Nom.	mātīr	suiūr	māter-e	suior-e	māter-es	suior-es
Voc.	mātīr	suiūr	māter-e	suior-e	māter-es	suior-es
Acc.	māter-en	suior-en	māter-e	suior-e	māter-ās	suior-ās
Gen.	mātr-ōs	suior-ōs	mātr-ou, mātr-ō	suior-ou, suior-ō	mātr-on	suior-on
Dat.	mātr-ē	suior-ē	mātr-ebon	suior-ebon	mātr-ebo	suior-ebo
Ins.	mātr-i	suior-i	mātr-ebin	suior-ebin	mātr-ebi	suior-ebi
Loc.	mātr-i	suior-i	mātr-ebin	suior-ebin	mātr-ebi	suior-ebi

R-stem nouns vary in how much the root reduces in the oblique cases. Noting the genitive form from the lexicon will help to know how to decline the remaining cases.

Nouns: S-Declension Neuters

Example: nemos, sky.

	Singular	Dual	Plural
NVA.	nem-os	nem-ie	nem-iā
Gen.	nem-ios	nem-iō	nem-ion
Dat.	nem-es	nem-obon	nem-obo
Ins.	nem-es	nem-obin	nem-obi
Loc.	nem-es	nem-obin	nem-obi

Combining Forms of Nouns

When nouns are combined, such as in personal names, the combining stem's suffix depends on the noun's declension:

Declension	Nom.	Gen.	Combining Stem
O	-os	-i	-
A	-ā	-iās	-
I	-is	-ē	-i-
U	-us	-ous	-u-
Nasal	-ū	-nos	-on-
Dental	-n(t)s, -nð	-ntos	-nt-
Velar	-xs	-cos, -gos	-c-, -g-

Examples:

uindos + bitus -> uindobitus, happiness.
lucrā + candos -> lucrocandos, moonlight.
sauelis + dīus -> sauelidīus, sunny day.
aidu + legos -> aidulegos, hearth.
TODO:

Adjectives: O/A Declension

Example: māros, great.

	Singular			Plural
	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter
Nom.	mār-ā	mār-os	mār-on	mār-ās	mār-ii, -oi	mār-ā
Voc.	mār-a	mār-e	mār-on	mār-ās	mār-ūs	mār-ā
Acc.	mār-in	mār-on	mār-on	mār-ās	mār-ūs	mār-ā
Gen.	mār-ās	mār-ī	mār-ī	mār-ānon	mār-on	mār-on
Dat.	mār-ī	mār-ū	mār-ū	mār-ābo	mār-obo	mār-obo
Ins.	mār-ī, mār-iā	mār-ū	mār-ū	mār-ābi	mār-obi, -ūs	mār-obi, -ūs
Loc.	mār-ī	mār-ē	mār-ē	mār-ābi	mār-obi	mār-obi

Adjectives: I-Declension

Example: letis, wider.

(Irregular comparative of litanos.)

	Singular			Plural
	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter
Nom.	let-is	let-is	let-i	let-ies	let-ies	let-iā
Voc.	let-i	let-i	let-i	let-ies	let-ies	let-iā
Acc.	let-in	let-in	let-i	let-īs	let-īs	let-iā
Gen.	let-iās	let-ēs	let-ēs	let-ion	let-ion	let-ion
Dat.	let-ē	let-ē	let-ē	let-ibo	let-ibo	let-ibo
Ins.	let-ī	let-ī	let-ī	let-ibi	let-ibi	let-ibi
Loc.	let-ī	let-ī	let-ī	let-ibi	let-ibi	let-ibi

Adjectives: U-Declension

Example: elus, much, many.

	Singular			Plural
	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter
Nom.	el-us	el-us	el-u	el-iās	el-iies	el-iā
Voc.	el-u	el-u	el-u	el-iās	el-iies	el-iā
Acc.	el-uin	el-un	el-u	el-iās	el-ūs	el-iā
Gen.	el-uās	el-ous, el-ōs	el-ous, el-ōs	el-uion	el-uion	el-uion
Dat.	el-uī	el-ou, el-ō	el-ou, el-ō	el-uābo	el-uibo	el-uibo
Ins.	el-uī	el-ū	el-ū	el-uābi	el-uibi	el-uibi
Loc.	el-uī	el-ū	el-ū	el-uābi	el-uibi	el-uibi

Adjectives: Consonant Declension

Example: trūxs, doomed.

	Singular			Plural
	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter
Nom.	trūx-s	trūx-s	trūx-s, trūc	trūc-es	trūc-es	trūc-ā
Voc.	trūx-s, trūc	trūx-s, trūc	trūx-s, trūc	trūc-es	trūc-es	trūc-ā
Acc.	trūc-en	trūc-en	trūx-s, trūc	trūc-ās	trūc-ās	trūc-ā
Gen.	trūc-os	trūc-os	trūc-os	trūc-on	trūc-on	trūc-on
Dat.	trūc-ē	trūc-ē	trūc-ē	trūc-obo	trūc-obo	trūc-obo
Ins.	trūc-ī	trūc-ī	trūc-ī	trūc-obi	trūc-obi	trūc-obi
Loc.	trūc-ī	trūc-ī	trūc-ī	trūc-obi	trūc-obi	trūc-obi

Equative, Comparative, and Superlative

The degrees of comparison for regular adjectives include the equative, comparative, and superlative. There is more than one way to form the equative:

Degree	Prefix	Suffix	Example	Gloss
Equative	con-	-	conaxsros	as tall as; so tall
	-	-isetos	axsrisetos
	con-	-isetos	conaxsrisetos
Comparative	-	-iūs	axsriūs	taller than; quite tall
Superlative	-	-isamos	axsrisamos	tallest; very tall

The comparative degree in -iūs has a unique declension of its own, here using the example of axsriūs:

	Singular		Plural
	F/M	Neuter	F/M	Neuter
Nom.	axsr-iūs	axsr-ios	axsr-ies	axsr-iā
Acc.	axsr-ian	axsr-ios	axsr-iās	axsr-iā
Gen.	axsr-ios	axsr-ios	axsr-ion	axsr-ion
D/I/L	axsr-ies	axsr-ies	axsr-iobi	axsr-iobi

Some adjectives have irregular gradations:

Positive	Gloss	Equative	Comparative	Superlative
adgoððus	near	neððetos	neððiūs	neððamos
biccos	small	biccisetos	lagiūs	lagisamos
cintus	first	-	cintiūs	cintusmos
dagos	good	condagos	uellos	uerouos
drucos	bad	condrucos	uextos	uextamos
elus	much, many	comantis	leiūs	-
iððelos	low	iððetos	iððiūs	iððamos
iouincos	young	iouincetos	ieuūs	ieuisamos
letanos	wide	cobletos	letis	letisamos
māros	great	comantis	moios	moi(s)amos
sīros	long	cositos	seiūs	seiamos
tresnos	powerful	trexsetos	trexsiūs	trexsamos
uxselos	high	uxs(is)etos	uxsiūs	uxs(is)amos

Declension rules:

All of the irregular degrees ending in -os are normal O/A adjectives declined like litanos;
Degrees ending in -is are I-adjectives declined like letis.
Leiūs is a normal U-adjective declined like elus except for the long vowel in the nom. sg.;
Ieuūs has gen.sg. ieuos and is declined like axsriūs but without the -i- in the suffix.
All other comparatives in -iūs are declined like axsriūs.

The equative can be used with suā +nominative, or with accusative, to equate two things. It can also be used on its own to mean "such", cf. the parallel usage of "so much" in English.

So mantalon eðði cobleton suā mou tegos.
This road is as wide as my house.

Cauaros eðði comantis epon.
The giant is as big as a horse.

Mieði cobleton tegos.
I have such a wide house.

Cauaros eðði comantis.
The giant is so big.

Comparatives are used with the instrumental of the entity being compared. By itself, a comparative means "quite", cf. the parallel usage of "mas fina" in Spanish.

Tou mapos eðði ieuūs mapū īmon.
Your son is younger than my son.

Tieði ieuūs mapos.
You have quite a young son.

Superlatives take inter +instrumental plural of the class or group within which the entity is the most of something. Here, too, the superlative on its own without a class or group means "very", cf. usages such as "a painting most exquisite" or "a most curious mystery" in English.

Ei-tū cū uerouos inter ollobi cunobi in magū!
You are the best dog in the park!

Ei-tū cū uerouos!
You are a very good dog!

Adjectives can be made adverbial in one of two ways:

By placing the preposition inti before the neuter accusative;
By placing the adjective in the instrumental case.

Examples:

Cingetes inti mārogalon ambi-ueuonar.
Cingetes mārogalū ambi-ueuonar.
The soldiers fought bravely.

Pronouns

First and Second Person

	First		Second
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nom.	mī	nīs	tū	suīs
Acc.	me	nos	te	suos
Gen.	mou, (ī)mon	anson	tou, (ī)ton	sueson
Dat.	moi, mei, mii	amē	tei, tii	umē
Ins.	me	anse	te	ume
Loc.	me	anse	te	ume
Possessive	mouos, -ā, -on	ansonos, -ā, -on	touos, -ā, -on	suesonos, -ā, -on

Mon and ton, when following the noun they qualify, become īmon and īton.

There are a few ways to form a reflexive 1st or 2nd pronoun:

Add suesin (indecl.) after it: me suesin, tou suesin, mei suesin, etc.
Add suedesin (indecl.): me suedesin, etc. This has a more emphatic meaning than suesin.
Suffix the pronoun with -desue: tedesue, moudesue, etc.
Prefix a genitive noun with sue-: suetegos īmon = my own house.

The pronoun oinānos, declined like an O/A adjective, has the emphatic meaning as in "I myself [did the thing]."

Third Person

	Singular			Dual	Plural
	Fem.	Masc.	Neu.	F/M/N	Fem.	Masc.	Neu.
Nom.	sī	īs	id, idā	ī	eias, iās	eis, ei	ī, eiā
Acc.	sian	in, íin, eion	id, idā	ī	sies	eiūs, sos	ī, eiā
Gen.	eiās	eio	eio	eiō	eiānon	eionon	eionon
Dat.	eíī	emū, eiū	emū, eiū	eiobon	eiābo	eiobo	eiobo
Ins.	eíī	emū, eiū	emū, eiū	eiobin	eiābi	eiobi, eiūs	eiobi, eiūs
Loc.	eíī	eiū	eiū	eiou	eiābi	eiobi	eiobi

The reflexive 3rd pronoun is made by prefixing sue-: sueíin himself, suesian herself, etc.

The emphatic pronoun oinānos can also be used in the third person.

Pronouns

Proximal Demonstratives

	Singular			Dual		Plural
	F	M	N	F	M/N	F	M	N
Nom.	sā	so(s)	so	sī, sii	sō	sās	soi	sanā
Acc.	sān	son	so	sī, sii	sō	sās	sūs	sanā
Gen.	soiās	soio	soio	sāsō	soisō	sanon	soison	soison
Dat.	soíī	soiū, somū	soiū, somū	sābon	soibon	sābo	soibo	soibo
Ins.	soiā	somi	somi	sābin	soibin	sābi	soibi	soibi
Loc.	soiā	soiū, somū	soiū, somū	sābin	soibin	sābi	soibi	soibi

Emphatic Demonstratives

	Singular			Plural
	F	M	N	F	M	N
Nom.	sosā	soso(s)	sosin	sosās	sosii	sosanā
Acc.	sosiān	soson	sosin	sosās	sosūs	sosanā
Gen.	sosās	sosi	sosi	sosanom	soson	soson
D/I/L	sosī, sosiā	sosiū	sosiū	-	-	-

Medial Demonstratives

	Singular			Plural
	F	M	N	F	M	N
Nom.	sondā	sondos	sindon	sondās	sondii	sindā
Acc.	sondin	sondon	sindon	sondās	sondūs	sindā
Gen.	sondās	sondī	sindī	sondānon	sondon	sindon
Dat.	sondī	sondū	sindū	sondābo	sondobo	sindobo
Instr.	sondī	sondū	sindū	sondābi	sondobi	sindobi
Loc.	sondī	sondē	sindē	sondābi	sondobi	sindobi

Distal Demonstratives

	Singular			Plural
	F	M	N	F	M	N
Nom.	sindā	sindos	sin	sindās	sindii	sindā
Acc.	sindin	sindon	sin	sindās	sindūs	sindā
Gen.	sindās	sindī	sindī	sindānon	sindon	sindon
Dat.	sindī	sindū	sindū	sindābo	sindobo	sindobo
Instr.	sindī	sindū	sindū	sindābi	sindobi	sindobi
Loc.	sindī	sindē	sindē	sindābi	sindobi	sindobi

Miscellaneous Demonstratives

-cios "this here" (proximate), e.g.:
ibete-suīs uciū andecārī biíete
"to drink of this you (pl.) will be merry."
ixsos, -ā, -on "such"; stem *isto-, loc. sg. *istei
sios, siā, sin "this here", emphatic, e.g. mī-siā, me-here
sodeios, -ā -on, anaphoric pronoun e.g.:
sagiū mou caranten, an adpepises sodeion?
"I'm looking for my friend, have you seen him?"
somos, -ā, -on, "this very, the same"

Correlatives

	Indefinite	Negative	Interrogative	Demonstrative	Identitative	Alternative	Universal
Animate	nepos someone	ne donios no one	peis? who?	sos, īs this, that	somos the same	allos another	ollos, pāpos all, every
Inanimate	nepidā something	ne pettiā nothing	pidā? what?	so, id this, that	somon the same	allon another	ollon, pāpi all, every
Disjunctive	nepoteros either	-	poteros? which?	-	-	altros, anteros the other	-
Source	nepanā from somewhere	-	panā? from where?	endes from there	sampanā from the same place	allopanā from elsewhere	ollopanā from everywhere
Destination	necutrō to somewhere	-	cutrō? to where?	entro to there	sancutrō to the same place	allocu to elsewhere	ollocutrō to everywhere
Locative	necu(ti) somewhere	ne legos nowhere	cuti?, puts? where?	endo there	sancu(ti) in the same place	allocu(ti) elsewhere	ollocu(ti) everywhere
Temporal	neponī, neponc sometimes	nāiui never	ponī?, ponc? when?	toni then	samponī, samponc at the same time	alloponī, alloponc another time	aiuī always
Qualitative	nepoios, nepoiācos some sort	ne ixsos none, no such	poios?, poiācos? what kind?, what sort?	ixsos such	somios the same type	allācos another type	ollācos all kinds
Quantitative	nepeti somewhat	ne oinos none, no amount	peti? how much?	soti so much, so many	sampeti as much	allopeti a different amount	cantos all, whole
Manner	nepū somehow	ne inti no way	pū?, pō? how?	suā, ita so, thus	inti somon in the same way	inti allon another way	inti ollon in every way
Reason	neperi for some reason	ne pēllin for no reason	peri? why?	canti, ita therefore, so	samperi for the same reason	alloperi for another reason	olloperi for every reason

Prepositions

With Accusative

ac along with
ad, at towards
ambi around, about
ande under, beneath
are for the sake of, because of, on behalf of
canta by, with
cena without
entra into, inside
extra outside
in, en, eni into, to
inter between, among
inti by means of
īss underneath
po til, until
raco before
samalī as
sepu past, beyond
trās across, beyond, over
trei through
uer up, upwards
uo downwards
urit, uritto against; opposite
ūxs above, over

With Dative

ris before, in front of, front, fore part; for*; on account of, in order; towards, to
sepans after, following, along, according to

* Note that for the meaning of "something for which to [verb]", you would use the gerundive of the verb instead.

With Instrumental

ad, at at
ambi around, about
ande up from, arising from
are before, in front of, on, beside, next to
au from, away from, since
con with
do to, for
eri about
ēron after
ex out of, ex
in, en, eni in, at
onco beside, next to
trās on the other side of
u of (partitive)
uēdo, uēdu in presence of
uer on, upon
uo under

With Locative

in, en, eni in, at

Verbs: Pronominal Enclitics

Person	Subject	Object
1st sg.	-mī	-mī
1st pl.	-nīs	-nīs

2nd sg.	-tū, -ti	-te, -ti
2nd pl.	-suīs	-suīs

3rd sg. fem.	-sī, -iā	-ian
3rd sg. masc.	-īs	-in
3rd sg. neu.	-i, -id, -idā	-i, -id
3rd pl. fem.	-sies	-iās
3rd pl. masc.	-íis	-iūs
3rd pl. neu.	-ī, -iā	-ī, -iā

(relative)	-io	-io(n)

The pronominal enclitics have the function of adding emphasis to the subject and/or object of the verb. If the verb is moved to the beginning of its sentence for emphasis, then some type of pronoun enclitic is mandatory. Oftentimes, a meaningless enclitic -i or -id is used in this case. This does not have the same meaning as the neuter -i(d), but is more like the Ancient Greek δε ("and"). Alternatively, the verb may be preceded by it(a), meaning roughly "thus". Both it(a) and -i(d) are optional unless the verb is at the beginning of the sentence. Compare:

Cletus gabiet arganton, the thief takes the silver.
Cletus gabiet-īs arganton, the thief himself takes the silver.
Gabiet-īs cletus arganton, the thief, he takes the silver.
Gabiet-i cletus arganton, and the thief takes the silver.
Ita gabiet cletus arganton, thus takes the thief (subj.) the silver (obj.).

Verbs: AI

Example: bināt, bibe, bītos; beiassus, -ous, to punish.

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	bināiū	bināmos	bināsū	bināsomos	bināiūr	bināmor	bināsūr	bināsomor
	2nd	bināi	bināte	bināses	bināsete	binātar	bināte	bināsetār	bināsete
	3rd	bināt	binānt	bināset	bināsont	binātor	bināntor	bināsetor	bināsontor
Future	1st	bināsiū	bināsiomos	-	-	bināsiūr	bināsiomor	-	-
	2nd	bināsies	bināsiete	-	-	bināsietār	bināsiete	-	-
	3rd	bināsiet	bināsiont	-	-	bināsietor	bināsiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	bināman	bināmos	-	-	bināmar	bināmor	-	-
	2nd	binātās	binātē	-	-	binātār	binātē	-	-
	3rd	bināto	binānto	-	-	binātor	bināntor	-	-
Preterite	1st	biba	bibame	bixsīn	bixsīmos	bītos/ā/on immi	bītī/ās/ā emos	bītos/ā/on buiū	bītī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	bibas	bibe	bixsīs	bixsīte	bītos/ā/on ei	bītī/ās/ā esue	bītos/ā/on bues	bītī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	bibe	bibant	bixsīt	bixsīnt	bītos/ā/on eðði	bītī/ās/ā sent	bītos/ā/on buet	bītī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	bināmas	-	bīxsomo
	2nd	binā	bināte	bīxs	bīxsete
	3rd	binātū	bināntū	bīxstū	bīxsontū

Verbs: AII

Example: cambīt, cambīsset, cambitos; cambītus, –ous, to exchange.

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	cambiíū	cambīmos	cambīsū	cambīsomos	cambiūr	cambīmor	cambīsūr	cambīsomor
	2nd	cambīs	cambīte	cambīses	cambīsete	cambītūr	cambīte	cambīsetār	cambīsete
	3rd	cambīt	cambīnt	cambīset	cambīsont	cambītor	cambīntor	cambīsetor	cambīsontor
Future	1st	cambīsiū	cambīsiomos	-	-	cambīsiūr	cambīsiomor	-	-
	2nd	cambīsies	cambīsiete	-	-	cambīsietār	cambīsiete	-	-
	3rd	cambīsiet	cambīsiont	-	-	cambīsietor	cambīsiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	cambīman	cambīmos	-	-	cambīmar	cambīmor	-	-
	2nd	cambītās	cambītē	-	-	cambītār	cambītē	-	-
	3rd	cambīto	cambīnto	-	-	cambītor	cambīntor	-	-
Preterite	1st	cambīssan	cambīssames	cambīssīn	cambīssīmos	cambītos/ā/on immi	cambītī/ās/ā emos	cambītos/ā/on buiū	cambītī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	cambīssas	cambīssate	cambīssīs	cambīssīte	cambītos/ā/on ei	cambītī/ās/ā esue	cambītos/ā/on bues	cambītī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	cambīsset	cambīssant	cambīssīt	cambīssīnt	cambītos/ā/on eðði	cambītī/ās/ā sent	cambītos/ā/on buet	cambītī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	cambīmas	-	cambīssomo
	2nd	cambī	cambīte	cambīss	cambīssete
	3rd	cambītū	cambīntū	cambīsstū	cambīssontū

Verbs: BI

This is the largest class of Gaulish verbs, the plain-ending consonant-stem verbs, and there is a lot of variety in the stems as well as in the preterites. This page provides a large selection of verbs, not to pile a huge memorization task onto the reader, but to illustrate this variability, and the ways the consonants combine with the future and subjunctive endings, such as c+s = xs, p+s = xs, t+s = ðð, etc.

Example: beret, bert, britos; bertā, -iās, to bear.

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	berū	beromos	berasū	berasomos	berūr	beromor	berasūr	berasomor
	2nd	beres	berete	berases	berasete	beretār	berete	berasetār	berasete
	3rd	beret	beront	beraset	berasont	beretor	berontor	berasetor	berasontor
Future	1st	berasiū	berasiomos	-	-	berasiūr	berasiomor	-	-
	2nd	berasies	berasiete	-	-	berasietār	berasiete	-	-
	3rd	berasiet	berasiont	-	-	berasietor	berasiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	bereman	beremos	-	-	beremar	beremor	-	-
	2nd	beretās	beretē	-	-	beretār	beretē	-	-
	3rd	bereto	berento	-	-	beretor	berentor	-	-
Preterite	1st	beran	berames	berasīn	berasīmos	britos/ā/on immi	britī/ās/ā emos	britos/ā/on buiū	britī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	bers	berte	berasīs	berasīte	britos/ā/on ei	britī/ās/ā esue	britos/ā/on bues	britī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	bert	berant	berasīt	berasīnt	britos/ā/on eðði	britī/ās/ā sent	britos/ā/on buet	britī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	beromo	-	berasomo
	2nd	bere	berete	beras	berasete
	3rd	beretū	berontū	berastū	berasontū

Example: brennet, bebronne, brentos; brennos, -ī, to burn.

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	brennū	brennomos	brennasū	brennasomos	brennūr	brennomor	brennasūr	brennasomor
	2nd	brennes	brennete	brennases	brennasete	brennetār	brennete	brennasetār	brennasete
	3rd	brennet	brennont	brennaset	brennasont	brennetor	brennontor	brennasetor	brennasontor
Future	1st	brennasiū	brennasiomos	-	-	brennasiūr	brennasiomor	-	-
	2nd	brennasies	brennasiete	-	-	brennasietār	brennasiete	-	-
	3rd	brennasiet	brennasiont	-	-	brennasietor	brennasiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	brenneman	brennemos	-	-	brennemar	brennemor	-	-
	2nd	brennetās	brennetē	-	-	brennetār	brennetē	-	-
	3rd	brenneto	brennento	-	-	brennetor	brennentor	-	-
Preterite	1st	bebronna	bebronname	bebronnasīn	bebronnasīmos	brentos/ā/on immi	brentī/ās/ā emos	brentos/ā/on buiū	brentī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	bebronnas	bebronne	bebronnasīs	bebronnasīte	brentos/ā/on ei	brentī/ās/ā esue	brentos/ā/on bues	brentī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	bebronne	bebronnant	bebronnasīt	bebronnasīnt	brentos/ā/on eðði	brentī/ās/ā sent	brentos/ā/on buet	brentī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	brennomo	-	bebronnasomo
	2nd	brenne	brennete	bebronnas	bebronnasete
	3rd	brennetū	brennontū	bebronnastū	bebronnasontū

Example: depret, dedopre, depretos; depron, -ī, to eat.

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	deprū	depromos	deprasū	deprasomos	deprūr	depromor	deprasūr	deprasomor
	2nd	depres	deprete	deprases	deprasete	depretār	deprete	deprasetār	deprasete
	3rd	depret	depront	depraset	deprasont	depretor	deprontor	deprasetor	deprasontor
Future	1st	deprasiū	deprasiomos	-	-	deprasiūr	deprasiomor	-	-
	2nd	deprasies	deprasiete	-	-	deprasietār	deprasiete	-	-
	3rd	deprasiet	deprasiont	-	-	deprasietor	deprasiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	depreman	depremos	-	-	depremar	depremor	-	-
	2nd	depretās	depretē	-	-	depretār	depretē	-	-
	3rd	depreto	deprento	-	-	depretor	deprentor	-	-
Preterite	1st	dedopra	dedoprame	dedoprasīn	dedoprasīmos	depretos/ā/on immi	depretī/ās/ā emos	depretos/ā/on buiū	depretī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	dedopras	dedopre	dedoprasīs	dedoprasīte	depretos/ā/on ei	depretī/ās/ā esue	depretos/ā/on bues	depretī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	dedopre	dedoprant	dedoprasīt	dedoprasīnt	depretos/ā/on eðði	depretī/ās/ā sent	depretos/ā/on buet	depretī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	depromo	-	dedoprasomo
	2nd	depre	deprete	dedopras	dedoprasete
	3rd	depretū	deprontū	dedoprastū	dedoprasontū

Example: ibet, ixset, ixtos; oclon, -ī, to drink.

ib

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	ibū	ibomos	īxsū	īxsomos	ibūr	ibomor	īxsūr	īxsomor
	2nd	ibes	ibete	īxses	īxsete	ibetār	ibete	īxsetār	īxsete
	3rd	ibet	ibont	īxset	īxsont	ibetor	ibontor	īxsetor	īxsontor
Future	1st	ixsiū	ixsiomos	-	-	ixsiūr	ixsiomor	-	-
	2nd	ixsies	ixsiete	-	-	ixsietār	ixsiete	-	-
	3rd	ixsiet	ixsiont	-	-	ixsietor	ixsiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	ibeman	ibemos	-	-	ibemar	ibemor	-	-
	2nd	ibetās	ibetē	-	-	ibetār	ibetē	-	-
	3rd	ibeto	ibento	-	-	ibetor	ibentor	-	-
Preterite	1st	ixsan	ixsames	ixsīn	ixsīmos	ixtos/ā/on immi	ixtī/ās/ā emos	ixtos/ā/on buiū	ixtī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	ixsas	ixsate	ixsīs	ixsīte	ixtos/ā/on ei	ixtī/ās/ā esue	ixtos/ā/on bues	ixtī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	ixset	ixsant	ixsīt	ixsīnt	ixtos/ā/on eðði	ixtī/ās/ā sent	ixtos/ā/on buet	ixtī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	ibomo	-	īxsomo
	2nd	ibe	ibete	īxs	īxsete
	3rd	ibetū	ibontū	īxstū	īxsontū

Example: orget, orxt, orxtos; orgenā, -iās, to kill.

org

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	orgū	orgomos	orxsū	orxsomos	orgūr	orgomor	orxsūr	orxsomor
	2nd	orges	orgete	orxses	orxsete	orgetār	orgete	orxsetār	orxsete
	3rd	orget	orgont	orxset	orxsont	orgetor	orgontor	orxsetor	orxsontor
Future	1st	orxsiū	orxsiomos	-	-	orxsiūr	orxsiomor	-	-
	2nd	orxsies	orxsiete	-	-	orxsietār	orxsiete	-	-
	3rd	orxsiet	orxsiont	-	-	orxsietor	orxsiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	orgeman	orgemos	-	-	orgemar	orgemor	-	-
	2nd	orgetās	orgetē	-	-	orgetār	orgetē	-	-
	3rd	orgeto	orgento	-	-	orgetor	orgentor	-	-
Preterite	1st	organ	orgames	orxsīn	orxsīmos	orxtos/ā/on immi	orxtī/ās/ā emos	orxtos/ā/on buiū	orxtī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	orxs	orxte	orxsīs	orxsīte	orxtos/ā/on ei	orxtī/ās/ā esue	orxtos/ā/on bues	orxtī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	orxt	organt	orxsīt	orxsīnt	orxtos/ā/on eðði	orxtī/ās/ā sent	orxtos/ā/on buet	orxtī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	orgomo	-	ōrxsomo
	2nd	orge	orgete	ōrxs	ōrxsete
	3rd	orgetū	orgontū	ōrxstū	ōrxsontū

Example: ratet, rerate, rassos; rasson, -ī, to promise.

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	ratū	ratomos	raððū	raððomos	ratūr	ratomor	raððūr	raððomor
	2nd	rates	ratete	raððes	raððete	ratetār	ratete	raððetār	raððete
	3rd	ratet	ratont	raððet	raððont	ratetor	ratontor	raððetor	raððontor
Future	1st	raððiū	raððiomos	-	-	raððiūr	raððiomor	-	-
	2nd	raððies	raððiete	-	-	raððietār	raððiete	-	-
	3rd	raððiet	raððiont	-	-	raððietor	raððiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	rateman	ratemos	-	-	ratemar	ratemor	-	-
	2nd	ratetās	ratetē	-	-	ratetār	ratetē	-	-
	3rd	rateto	ratento	-	-	ratetor	ratentor	-	-
Preterite	1st	rerata	reratame	reraððīn	reraððīmos	rassos/ā/on immi	rassī/ās/ā emos	rassos/ā/on buiū	rassī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	reratas	rerate	reraððīs	reraððīte	rassos/ā/on ei	rassī/ās/ā esue	rassos/ā/on bues	rassī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	rerate	reratant	reraððīt	reraððīnt	rassos/ā/on eðði	rassī/ās/ā sent	rassos/ā/on buet	rassī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	ratomo	-	rerāðomo
	2nd	rate	ratete	rerāð	rerāðete
	3rd	ratetū	ratontū	rerāðtū	rerāðontū

Example: appiset, adpepise, appissos; pissiū, -onos, to see.

ad-pepis

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	appisū	appisomos	appissū	appissomos	appisūr	appisomor	appissūr	appissomor
	2nd	appises	appisete	appisses	appissete	appisetār	appisete	appissetār	appissete
	3rd	appiset	appisont	appisset	appissont	appisetor	appisontor	appissetor	appissontor
Future	1st	appissiū	appissiomos	-	-	appissiūr	appissiomor	-	-
	2nd	appissies	appissiete	-	-	appissietār	appissiete	-	-
	3rd	appissiet	appissiont	-	-	appissietor	appissiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	appiseman	appisemos	-	-	appisemar	appisemor	-	-
	2nd	appisetās	appisetē	-	-	appisetār	appisetē	-	-
	3rd	appiseto	appisento	-	-	appisetor	appisentor	-	-
Preterite	1st	ad-pepisa	ad-pepisame	ad-pepissīn	ad-pepissīmos	appissos/ā/on immi	appissī/ās/ā emos	appissos/ā/on buiū	appissī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	ad-pepisas	ad-pepise	ad-pepissīs	ad-pepissīte	appissos/ā/on ei	appissī/ās/ā esue	appissos/ā/on bues	appissī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	ad-pepise	ad-pepisant	ad-pepissīt	ad-pepissīnt	appissos/ā/on eðði	appissī/ās/ā sent	appissos/ā/on buet	appissī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	appisomo	-	ad-pepīssomo
	2nd	appise	appisete	ad-pepīss	ad-pepīssete
	3rd	appisetū	appisontū	ad-pepīsstū	ad-pepīssontū

Example: euret, īeurū, īeuros; euris, -ēs, to offer.

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	eurū	euromos	eurasū	eurasomos	eurūr	euromor	eurasūr	eurasomor
	2nd	eures	eurete	eurases	eurasete	euretār	eurete	eurasetār	eurasete
	3rd	euret	euront	euraset	eurasont	euretor	eurontor	eurasetor	eurasontor
Future	1st	eurasiū	eurasiomos	-	-	eurasiūr	eurasiomor	-	-
	2nd	eurasies	eurasiete	-	-	eurasietār	eurasiete	-	-
	3rd	eurasiet	eurasiont	-	-	eurasietor	eurasiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	eureman	euremos	-	-	euremar	euremor	-	-
	2nd	euretās	euretē	-	-	euretār	euretē	-	-
	3rd	eureto	eurento	-	-	euretor	eurentor	-	-
Preterite	1st	eurān	eurāmes	eurasīn	eurasīmos	euratos/ā/on immi	euratī/ās/ā emos	euratos/ā/on buiū	euratī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	euras	eurate	eurasīs	eurasīte	euratos/ā/on ei	euratī/ās/ā esue	euratos/ā/on bues	euratī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	eurat	eurānt	eurasīt	eurasīnt	euratos/ā/on eðði	euratī/ās/ā sent	euratos/ā/on buet	euratī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	euromo	-	eurāsomo
	2nd	eure	eurete	eurās	eurāsete
	3rd	euretū	eurontū	eurāstū	eurāsontū

Verbs: BII

These are verbs whose stems end with with a consonantal -i.

Example: uediíet, uāde, uessios; uediā, -iās, to entreat.

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	uediiū	uediiomos	uedisū	uedisomos	uediiūr	uediiomor	uedisūr	uedisomor
	2nd	uediies	uediiete	uedises	uedisete	uediietār	uediiete	uedisetār	uedisete
	3rd	uediiet	uediiont	uediset	uedisont	uediietor	uediiontor	uedisetor	uedisontor
Future	1st	uiuedisiū	uiuedisiomos	-	-	uiuedisiūr	uiuedisiomor	-	-
	2nd	uiuedisies	uiuedisiete	-	-	uiuedisietār	uiuedisiete	-	-
	3rd	uiuedisiet	uiuedisiont	-	-	uiuedisietor	uiuedisiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	uediieman	uediiemos	-	-	uediiemar	uediiemor	-	-
	2nd	uediietās	uediietē	-	-	uediietār	uediietē	-	-
	3rd	uediieto	uediiento	-	-	uediietor	uediientor	-	-
Preterite	1st	uāda	uādame	uāððīn	uāððīmos	uessos/ā/on immi	uessī/ās/ā emos	uessos/ā/on buiū	uessī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	uādas	uāde	uāððīs	uāððīte	uessos/ā/on ei	uessī/ās/ā esue	uessos/ā/on bues	uessī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	uāde	uādant	uāððīt	uāððīnt	uessos/ā/on eðði	uessī/ās/ā sent	uessos/ā/on buet	uessī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	uediiomo	-	uāðomo
	2nd	uediie	uediiete	uāð	uāðete
	3rd	uediietū	uediiontū	uāðtū	uāðontū

Notice the double-I in the stem, causing the forms with the stem uedi-.

Example: sagiet, sioxt, saxtos; sagitis, -ēs, to seek.

siog

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	sagiū	sagiomos	saxsū	saxsomos	sagiūr	sagiomor	saxsūr	saxsomor
	2nd	sagies	sagiete	saxses	saxsete	sagietār	sagiete	saxsetār	saxsete
	3rd	sagiet	sagiont	saxset	saxsont	sagietor	sagiontor	saxsetor	saxsontor
Future	1st	siaxsiū	siaxsiomos	-	-	siaxsiūr	siaxsiomor	-	-
	2nd	siaxsies	siaxsiete	-	-	siaxsietār	siaxsiete	-	-
	3rd	siaxsiet	siaxsiont	-	-	siaxsietor	siaxsiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	sagieman	sagiemos	-	-	sagiemar	sagiemor	-	-
	2nd	sagietās	sagietē	-	-	sagietār	sagietē	-	-
	3rd	sagieto	sagiento	-	-	sagietor	sagientor	-	-
Preterite	1st	siogan	siogames	sioxsīn	sioxsīmos	saxtos/ā/on immi	saxtī/ās/ā emos	saxtos/ā/on buiū	saxtī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	sioxs	sioxte	sioxsīs	sioxsīte	saxtos/ā/on ei	saxtī/ās/ā esue	saxtos/ā/on bues	saxtī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	sioxt	siogant	sioxsīt	sioxsīnt	saxtos/ā/on eðði	saxtī/ās/ā sent	saxtos/ā/on buet	saxtī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	sagiomo	-	siōxsomo
	2nd	sagie	sagiete	siōxs	siōxsete
	3rd	sagietū	sagiontū	siōxstū	siōxsontū

Verbs: BIII

These verbs end in a nasal (m or n) followed by a stop (b, g, t, etc.). Historically, they were formed by infixing a nasal before the end of the root, e.g. *la-m-b- from root *lab-, with the nasal disappearing in tenses other than the present and imperfect. In the Celtic languages, this nasal infix came to be kept in some or all of the tenses, so you have to know each verb's preterite in order to know whether it keeps the infix in all forms.

Example: tanget, tage, taxtos; tagon, –i, to agree.

This verb loses the -n- in the preterite, the aorist imperative, and the past participle.

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	tangū	tangomos	tanxsū	tanxsomos	tangūr	tangomor	tanxsūr	tanxsomor
	2nd	tanges	tangete	tanxses	tanxsete	tangetār	tangete	tanxsetār	tanxsete
	3rd	tanget	tangont	tanxset	tanxsont	tangetor	tangontor	tanxsetor	tanxsontor
Future	1st	tanxsiū	tanxsiomos	-	-	tanxsiūr	tanxsiomor	-	-
	2nd	tanxsies	tanxsiete	-	-	tanxsietār	tanxsiete	-	-
	3rd	tanxsiet	tanxsiont	-	-	tanxsietor	tanxsiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	tangeman	tangemos	-	-	tangemar	tangemor	-	-
	2nd	tangetās	tangetē	-	-	tangetār	tangetē	-	-
	3rd	tangeto	tangento	-	-	tangetor	tangentor	-	-
Preterite	1st	taga	tagame	taxsīn	taxsīmos	taxtos/ā/on immi	taxtī/ās/ā emos	taxtos/ā/on buiū	taxtī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	tagas	tage	taxsīs	taxsīte	taxtos/ā/on ei	taxtī/ās/ā esue	taxtos/ā/on bues	taxtī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	tage	tagant	taxsīt	taxsīnt	taxtos/ā/on eðði	taxtī/ās/ā sent	taxtos/ā/on buet	taxtī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	tangomo	-	tāxsomo
	2nd	tange	tangete	tāxs	tāxsete
	3rd	tangetū	tangontū	tāxstū	tāxsontū

Example: gandet, gegande, gāssos; gandon, –i, to permit.

This verb keeps the -n- in all forms.

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	gandū	gandomos	ganðū	ganðomos	gandūr	gandomor	ganðūr	ganðomor
	2nd	gandes	gandete	ganðes	ganðete	gandetār	gandete	ganðetār	ganðete
	3rd	gandet	gandont	ganðet	ganðont	gandetor	gandontor	ganðetor	ganðontor
Future	1st	ganðiū	ganðiomos	-	-	ganðiūr	ganðiomor	-	-
	2nd	ganðies	ganðiete	-	-	ganðietār	ganðiete	-	-
	3rd	ganðiet	ganðiont	-	-	ganðietor	ganðiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	gandeman	gandemos	-	-	gandemar	gandemor	-	-
	2nd	gandetās	gandetē	-	-	gandetār	gandetē	-	-
	3rd	gandeto	gandento	-	-	gandetor	gandentor	-	-
Preterite	1st	geganda	gegandame	geganðīn	geganðīmos	gāssos/ā/on immi	gāssī/ās/ā emos	gāssos/ā/on buiū	gāssī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	gegandas	gegande	geganðīs	geganðīte	gāssos/ā/on ei	gāssī/ās/ā esue	gāssos/ā/on bues	gāssī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	gegande	gegandant	geganðīt	geganðīnt	gāssos/ā/on eðði	gāssī/ās/ā sent	gāssos/ā/on buet	gāssī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	gandomo	-	gegānðomo
	2nd	gande	gandete	gegānð	gegānðete
	3rd	gandetū	gandontū	gegānðtū	gegānðontū

Verbs: BIV

Example: prinat, pipre, pritos; priton, -i, to buy.

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	prinami	prinamos	priān	priaomos	prinār	prinamor	priār	priaomor
	2nd	prinasi	prinate	priaisi	priaite	prinatār	prinate	priaitār	priaite
	3rd	prinat	prinant	priait	priaont	prinator	prinantor	priaitor	priaontor
Future	1st	prinasiū	prinasiomos	-	-	prinasiūr	prinasiomor	-	-
	2nd	prinasies	prinasiete	-	-	prinasietār	prinasiete	-	-
	3rd	prinasiet	prinasiont	-	-	prinasietor	prinasiontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	prinaman	prinamos	-	-	prinamar	prinamor	-	-
	2nd	prinatās	prinatē	-	-	prinatār	prinatē	-	-
	3rd	prinato	prinanto	-	-	prinator	prinantor	-	-
Preterite	1st	pipra	piprame	piprasīn	piprasīmos	pritos/ā/on immi	pritī/ās/ā emos	pritos/ā/on buiū	pritī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	pipras	pipre	piprasīs	piprasīte	pritos/ā/on ei	pritī/ās/ā esue	pritos/ā/on bues	pritī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	pipre	piprant	piprasīt	piprasīnt	pritos/ā/on eðði	pritī/ās/ā sent	pritos/ā/on buet	pritī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	prinamas	-	piprāsomo
	2nd	prina	prinate	piprās	piprāsete
	3rd	prinatū	prinantū	piprāstū	piprāsontū

Verbs: BV

Example: clinutor, clutos; cloustā, -iās, to hear.

This is a deponent verb, meaning it has passive voice forms only. It is the only known class BV verb.

		Deponent
		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	clinūr	clinumor	clouūr	clouomor
	2nd	clinutār	clinute	clouetār	clouete
	3rd	clinutor	clinuntor	clouetor	clouontor
Future	1st	cicluuasūr	cicluuasomor	-	-
	2nd	cicluuasetār	cicluuasete	-	-
	3rd	cicluuasetor	cicluuasontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	clinuman	clinumos	-	-
	2nd	clinutās	clinutē	-	-
	3rd	clinuto	clinunto	-	-
Preterite	1st	cucloua	cuclouame	cuclousīn	cuclousīmos
	2nd	cuclouas	cucloue	cuclousīs	cuclousīte
	3rd	cucloue	cuclouant	cuclousīt	cuclousīnt

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	clinumas	-	cuclousomo
	2nd	clinu	clinute	cuclous	cuclousete
	3rd	clinutū	clinuntū	cucloustū	cuclousontū

Preterites

Unlike most IE languages, Gaulish preterites fall into several paradigms independent of the verb's main conjugation class. It is usually easy to tell from the ending of the cited 3rd sg. preterite in the lexicon which paradigm it belongs to. The preterites for the active voice are given below, using the examples of attested verbs where either at least one preterite form is known, or the preterite can be reconstructed from the Proto-Celtic root.

Passive preterites don't have their own endings; for such meanings, use the corresponding number and gender of the past participle (O/A declension) with the corresponding present indicative or present subjunctive form of eðði, e.g. appissā immi I was seen; auuessā buont were they (already) made.

Suffixless Preterites

	Indicative		Subjunctive
Verb: appiset, ad-pepise, appissos; pisiū, -onos.: to see
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st	adpepis-a	adpepis-me	adpepis-sīn	adpepis-sīmos
2nd	adpepis-as	adpepis-e	adpepis-sīs	adpepis-sīte
3rd	adpepis-e	adpepis-ar	adpepis-sīt	adpepis-sīnt

S-Preterites

	Indicative		Subjunctive
Verb: ibet, ixset, ixtos; oclon, -ī: to drink
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st	ix-san	ix-same	ix-sīn	ix-sīmos
2nd	ix-ses	ix-sate	ix-sīs	ix-sīte
3rd	ix-set	ix-sar	ix-sīt	ix-sīnt

T-Preterites

	Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Verb: auuedet, auuōt, auuessos; auuedenā, -iās: to make
Verb: sagiet, sioxt, saxtos; sagitis, -ēs.: to seek
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st	auuō-n	auuō-mes	auuō-sīn	auuō-sīmes	siog-an	siog-ames	siox-sīn	siox-sīmes
2nd	auuō-s	auuō-te	auuō-sīs	auuō-sīte	siox-s	siox-te	siox-sīs	siox-sīte
3rd	auuō-t	auuō-nt	auuō-sīt	auuō-sīnt	siox-t	siog-ar	siox-sīt	siox-sīnt

The attested form sioxti is at the beginning of a clause, and consists of sioxt plus the meaningless enclitic -i, since an enclitic is normally required in verb first constructs.

U-Preterites

A number of attestations show a 3rd sg. preterite ending in -ū, plural -ūs. This is not consistent with known verbal preterite endings, however it is consistent with an instrumental pronominal suffix. If, hypothetically, a suffixless preterite such as *īeure were suffixed as *īeure-os > *īeuros, its instrumental would be īeurū, which is exactly what we see in the dedication at Alise-Sainte-Reine:

MARTIALIS DANNOTALI IEVRV VCVETE SOSIN CELICNON

...which we can interpret as "Martialis [son] of Dannotalos offered-by-him to Ucuetis this banquet hall...".

The -ū(s) ending is also attested for e.g. carnitū (erected) and dedū (gave), however since the preterite dede is also attested, -ū cannot be the normal 3rd sg. preterite ending of this verb.

Perfect Tense

The perfect is formed by prefixing ro- to the present or preterite. The future perfect is formed by prefixing ro- to the present subjunctive.

auuedet = s/he makes
auuōt = s/he made
ro-auuedet = s/he has made
ro-auuōt = s/he has made
auueððet = were s/he to make
ro-auuððet = s/he will have made

Participles and Nominalizers

Nominal forms of verbs can be formed directly from the dictionary form. The -os suffix has an active meaning, and the -ios suffix an inactive meaning.

All of the participles and nominal forms take -os, -ā, -on endings that decline like O/A adjectives.

desset = s/he prepares
desset-os = preparer, one who prepares
desset-ios = prepared, that which is prepared

The -os suffix is also attested as -is in the case of accusative arueriíātin, meaning "one who gives satisfaction". This ending could make sense of the plural form eurisēs (offerers) if it is the plural of *eurisis, a suffixed form derived from the same verb as īeurū (see the preterites section for more on this verb).

The present participle suffix is -aunos. It can be added to the present or future stem of the verb, and the prefix ro- can be used to make a past tense.

dessaunos = preparing; one who is preparing
dessiaunos = about to prepare; going to prepare
ro-dessaunos = one who has prepared

Each verb is listed in the lexicon with a past participle. This forms the basis of passive participles with imperfective, perfective, or future meanings.

dessos = (having been) prepared
dessios = being prepared
desseios = (that which is) to be prepared

Some verbs have a past participle in the dictionary that is the same as the active nominalizer, e.g. damāt "to endure", past pple damātos "endured". When this happens, the active nominal form **damāt-os (**"endurer") is not used, and what would have been its meaning is covered by the present participle, e.g. ro-damaunos.

The form ending in -eios is called a gerundive. The verb essi, "be", has no passive participle, so its gerundive is onnos.

Verbs: Irregular

tēget, ludet, itos; dalus, -ous, to go.

		Active				Passive
		Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	tēgū	tēgomos	tēxsū	tēxsomos	tēgūr	tēgomor	tēxsūr	tēxsomor
	2nd	tēges	tēgete	tēxses	tēxsete	tēgetār	tēgete	tēxsetār	tēxsete
	3rd	tēget	tēgont	tēxset	tēxsont	tēgetor	tēgontor	tēxsetor	tēxsontor
Future	1st	rigāsū	rigāsomos	-	-	rigāsūr	rigāsomor	-	-
	2nd	rigāses	rigāsete	-	-	rigāsetār	rigāsete	-	-
	3rd	rigāset	rigāsont	-	-	rigāsetor	rigāsontor	-	-
Imperfect	1st	tēgeman	tēgemos	-	-	tēgemar	tēgemor	-	-
	2nd	tēgetās	tēgetē	-	-	tēgetār	tēgetē	-	-
	3rd	tēgeto	tēgento	-	-	tēgetor	tēgentor	-	-
Preterite	1st	ludū	ludomos	ellū	ellomos	itos/ā/on immi	itī/ās/ā emos	itos/ā/on buiū	itī/ās/ā buomos
	2nd	ludes	ludete	elles	ellete	itos/ā/on ei	itī/ās/ā esue	itos/ā/on bues	itī/ās/ā buete
	3rd	ludet	ludont	ellet	ellont	itos/ā/on eðði	itī/ās/ā sent	itos/ā/on buet	itī/ās/ā buont

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	tēgomo	-	lūðomo
	2nd	tēge	tēgete	lūð	lūðete
	3rd	tēgetū	tēgontū	lūðtū	lūðontū

Verbs: Copula

essi, būe; butā, –iās, to be.

		Active
		Indicative		Subjunctive
Present	1st	immi	emos	buiū	buomos
	2nd	ei	esue	bues	buete
	3rd	eðði	sent	buet	buont
Future	1st	bissiū	bissiomos	-	-
	2nd	bissies	bissiete	-	-
	3rd	bissiet	bissiont	-	-
Imperfect	1st	eiāman	eiāmos	-	-
	2nd	eiātās	eiātē	-	-
	3rd	eiāto	eiānto	-	-
Preterite	1st	būa	būame	būaman	būamos
	2nd	būas	būe	būatās	būatē
	3rd	būe	būant	būato	būanto

		Imperfective		Aorist
Imperative	1st	-	biiomo	-	-
	2nd	biie	biiete	-	-
	3rd	biietū	biiontū	-	-

Conjunctions

ac and, but
an (interr.) maybe?
anne (interr.) perhaps not?, isn’t it?
ate again
auc for, because
canti therefore, then
cei, cii here
ceti although
cuti where
(g)dēs yesterday
duci as, like
endo there
eri because
eti, {noun}-c and
etic moreover, and also
extos but
ion while, when
ixse or (from the pronoun ixsos)
ne no, not
nec, nac and-not
neue nor
nu now
panī when
pari why
po how
samalī likewise
sindīū today
sinnoxti tonight
sosio in order that (rel.)
suā so, thus
toni also
uta so that (rel.)

Conditionals

Real Conditionals

Present indicative:
ma mantalon essi ulipu, essi slibnon.
If the road is wet, it's slippery.
Future indicative:
ma mantalon bisiet ulipu, bisiet slibnon.
If the road will be wet, it will be slippery.
Preterite indicative:
ma mantalon būe ulipu, būe slibnon.
If the road was wet, it was slippery.

Irreal Conditionals

Imperfect:
ma mantalon eiāt ulipu, eiāt slibnon.
If the road were wet, it would be (already) slippery.
Present subjunctive:
ma mantalon buet ulipu, buet slibnon.
If the road would be wet, it would be (become) slippery.
Preterite subjunctive:
ma mantalon beioto ulipu, beioto slibnon.
If the road had been wet, it would have been slippery.

Conditionals can also mix tenses, e.g. ma mantalon essi ulipu, bisiet slibnon.

Numerals

Types of Numerals

Cardinal, e.g. "there are four lights";
Ordinal, e.g. "the fourth light";
Adverb, e.g. "the lights blinked four times";
Multiplicative, e.g. "quadruple";
Fractive, e.g. "quarter";
Collective, e.g. "all four".

Cardinals one through four agree with the gender and case of their nouns, e.g. tedres suiūr "three sisters". Other cardinals take the genitive plural, e.g. sextan blēdnānon "seven years", literally "seven of years". Ordinals and multiplicatives decline like O/A adjectives; cintus is a U-stem adjective that has an alternative O/A form cintuxos.

Table of Numerals

	Cardinal
#	f.	m.	n.	Ordinal	Adverb	Multiplicative	Fractive	Collective
1	oinā	oinos	oinon	cintus, -u	smīs	samblos, -ā, -on	cantos	donios
2	duī	dāu		allos, -ā, -on	duīs	duīblos, -ā, -on	letos, santeron	ambostā
3	tedres	trīes	trī	tritos, -ā, -on	trīuextā	trīblos, -ā, -on	trēanis	tridion
4	petedres	petuares	petuār	petruarios, -ā, -on	petruuextā	petrublos, -ā, -on	petranis	petrudion
5	pempe			pimpetos, -ā, -on	pimpeuextā	pimpeblos, -ā, -on	pimpanis	pimpedion
6	suexs			suexos, -ā, -on	suexuextā	suēblos, -ā, -on	suexanis	suedion
7	sextan			sextametos, -ā, -on	sextauextā	sextablos, -ā, -on	sextanis	sextanion
8	oxtū			oxtūmetos, -ā, -on	oxtūuextā	oxtūblos, -ā, -on	oxtūuanis	oxtūdion
9	nauan			nametos, -ā, -on	nauuextā	naublos, -ā, -on	nauanis	nauantion
10	decan			decametos, -ā, -on	decuextā	decablos, -ā, -on	decanis	decantion
11	oindecan			oindecametos, -ā, -on	oindecuextā	oindecablos, -ā, -on	oindecanis	oindecantion
12	dāudecan			dāudecametos, -ā, -on	dāudecuextā	dāudecablos, -ā, -on	dāudecanis	dāudecantion
13	trīdecan			trīdecametos, -ā, -on	trīdecuextā	trīdecablos, -ā, -on	trīdecanis	trīdecantion
14	petrudecan			petrudecametos, -ā, -on	petrudecuextā	petrudecablos, -ā, -on	petrudecanis	petrudecantion
15	pimpedecan			pimpedecametos, -ā, -on	pimpedecuextā	pimpedecablos, -ā, -on	pimpedecanis	pimpedecantion
16	suedecan			suedecametos, -ā, -on	suedecuextā	suedecablos, -ā, -on	suedecanis	suedecantion
17	sextadecan			sextadecametos, -ā, -on	sextadecuextā	sextadecablos, -ā, -on	sextadecanis	sextadecantion
18	oxtūdecan			oxtūdecametos, -ā, -on	oxtūdecuextā	oxtūdecablos, -ā, -on	oxtūdecanis	oxtūdecantion
19	naudecan			naudecametos, -ā, -on	naudecuextā	naudecablos, -ā, -on	naudecanis	naudecantion

The number one is declined as a normal O/A adjective. Two through four have their own declensions:

	Two		Three			Four
	F.	M/N.	F.	M.	N.	F.	M.	N.
Nom.	duī	dāu	tedres	trīes	trī	petedres	petuares	petuār
Voc.	duī	dāu	tedre	trīe	trī	petedre	petuare	petuār
Acc.	duī	dāu	tedrās	trīs	trī	petedrās	peturīs	petuār
Gen.	duāiō	duoiō	tedron	trīon	trīon	petedron	peturon	peturon
Dat.	duābon	duobon	tedrobo	trīobo	trīobo	petedrobo	peturobo	peturobo
I/L.	duābin	duobin	tedrobi	trīobi	trīobi	petedrobi	peturobi	peturobi

Numbers from 30 to 99 have an optional vigesimal system alongside the more common decimal system. The number uīcantī, twenty, is grammatically a feminine noun of the A-declension. It occurs in the dual number in the vigesimals of 40 and 50, and the plural for the vigesimals of 60-90.

The -ā, -on endings are omitted from the below table for brevity, but ordinals and multiplicatives, and the cardinal oinos, all continue to decline like O/A adjectives.

#	Cardinal	Ordinal	Adverb	Multiplicative	Fractive	Collective
20	uīcantī	uīcantometos	uīcantouextā	uīcantoblos	uīcantanis	uīcantion
21	uīcantī oinos	uīcantometos cintus	oinuīcantouextā	uīcantoblos samblos	oinuīcantanis	oinuīcantion
30	trīcontā	trīcontometos	trīcontouextā	trīcontoblos	trīcontanis	trīcontion
30	uīcantī decan	uīcantometos decametos	uīcantouextā decuextā	uīcantoblos decablos	uīcantanis decanis	uīcantion decantion
40	petrucontā	petrucontometos	petrucontouextā	petrucontoblos	petrucontanis	petrucontion
40	duī uīcantī	duī uīcantometos	duī uīcantouextā	duī uīcantoblos	duī uīcantanis	duī uīcantion
50	pimpecontā	pimpecontometos	pimpecontouextā	pimpecontoblos	pimpecontanis	pimpecontion
50	duī uīcantī decan	duī uīcantometos decametos	duī uīcantouextā decuextā	duī uīcantoblos decablos	duī uīcantanis decanis	duī uīcantion decantion
60	suescontā	suescontometos	suescontouextā	suescontoblos	suescontanis	suescontion
60	tisres uīcantiās	t. uīcantometos	t. uīcantouextā	t. uīcantoblos	t. uīcantanis	t. uīcantion
70	sextacontā	sextacontometos	sextacontouextā	sextacontoblos	sextacontanis	sextacontion
70	tisres uīcantiās decan	t. uīcantometos decametos	t. uīcantouextā decuextā	t. uīcantoblos decablos	t. uīcantanis decanis	t. uīcantion decantion
80	oxtūcontā	oxtūcontometos	oxtūcontouextā	oxtūcontoblos	oxtūcontanis	oxtūcontion
80	petedres uīcantiās	p. uīcantometos	p. uīcantouextā	p. uīcantoblos	p. uīcantanis	p. uīcantion
90	naucontā	naucontometos	naucontouextā	naucontoblos	naucontanis	naucontion
90	petedres uīcantiās decan	p. uīcantometos decametos	p. uīcantouextā decuextā	p. uīcantoblos decablos	p. uīcantanis decanis	p. uīcantion decantion
100	canton	cantometos	cantouextā	cantoblos	cantometanis	cantometion
101	canton oinos	cantometos cintus	oincantouextā	cantoblos samblos	oincantometanis	oincantometion
200	dāucanton	dāucantometos	dāucantouextā	dāucantoblos	dāucantometanis	dāucantometion
1000	gellon	gellometos	gellouextā	gelloblos	gellometanis	gellometion

Profanity and Curses

Swear Words

bepos, -i (m.) penis, dick
caccā, -iās (f.) shit
motāt, motāsset, motātos AI.; motā, -iās (f.) to fuck
taglos, -i (m.) shit
tuccā / tucettā / tocā / tucnā, -iās (f.) arse, ass; ass hole

Word Order

Neutral Word Order

The neutral, unmarked, non-emphatic word order is:

Subject, Verb, Indirect/Oblique Object, Predicative Direct Object, Adjunct, Source/Goal/Destination, Attributive Direct Object.
Example:

Rīxs rodīsset sueī duxtrē epon, pon eíī ne-eiāt-īs epos, uta gallet-iā monetun puts ueletor-io, nertomāron.
The king gave his daughter a horse, because she didn't have one, so she could go where she wanted to, a powerful one.
(Take nertomāron with epon.)

SVO and VSO

SVO word order is the most common in main clauses. VSO is usual in subordinate clauses:

Mātīr īton rodīsset-iā tei sondīn malenīn.
Your mother gave you that mirror.

An sosā eðði malenā rodīsset-io mātir īton tei?
Is this the mirror your mother gave you?

When VSO order occurs in a main clause, with the verb first, it emphasizes the verb and can mean that an action happened suddenly, or as a result of earlier actions or conditions, etc. Imperatives and contrastives are usually VSO.

Uoure catuslougos catulisson galinion, sepans sagitē cenī.
[Suddenly] the troop found the enemy camp, after a long search.
(Take galinion as a genitive qualifying the accusative catulisson.)

SOV order is also known, with the verb last. It has a classical poetic quality to it, as if speaking the way the ancients did.

Uercingetorixs com Caisri inti nertācon iext.
Vercingetorix with Caesar bravely spoke.

Copula Meaning "To Have"

When forms of eðði are used to mean "have", the dative of the subject often directly precedes the verb. This is attested in a reduced form: tīeði, "you have", from tei eðði, lit. "to you there is". Other persons and numbers such as mīeði are possible, as are forms with senti (meaning multiple things are had) instead of eðði.

Adjectives

The usual order is for the adjective to follow the noun, especially if the adjective has more relevance or emphasis than the noun does, and/or if the adjective describes some intrinsic quality of the noun such as origin, composition, etc. Many common phrases have the adjective always following the noun.

Adjectives of quantity or size, such as ollos, allos, papos, magios, elus, māros, etc., generally precede the noun, but if they follow, they have an indefinite meaning. Nepos belongs to this class but it follows the noun because it is indefinite by definition.

Possessives such as mouos, touos, sueios, can freely precede or follow the noun, but the possessives mon and ton can only precede the noun, and the possessives īmon and īton can only follow the noun.

Otherwise, genitives, or datives of belonging, normally follow the noun, e.g. toutios namausatis citizen of Nîmes, caranð ueníī friend of the family.

Numerals most often precede the noun, but can follow the noun in order to emphasize the number. In expressions of time, ordinals follow their nouns.

Demonstratives normally precede the noun. The demonstrative sī/(e)iā (f.), is (m.), idā (n.) can refer to an earlier noun in the same way as saying "the aforementioned".

An adjective that would normally follow the noun may precede for purposes of contrast, e.g. an dagā mentiū eðði an drucā?, "is it a good idea or a bad one?".

The normal order of stacked adjectives is to place intrinsic or inalienable attributes of essence closer to the noun than adjectives denoting temporary or mutable attributes of status.

Genitives

For the most part, genitives can freely precede or follow the head noun. Unlike with adjectives, a preceding genitive has more emphasis. Partitives follow the head noun. Genitives often occur between the head noun and an adjective.

Cantlā

Songs are a great way to learn a language. One technique is to take a familiar song and, while singing it, progressively substitute words from the original language to the target language until all the words have been translated. That requires a song with repetitive refrains, which fortunately is common in children's songs. Another benefit is that the sentence structures are simpler, without much subtext and with a focus on what the words mean instead of the complexities of the songwriter's emotional state. These are songs designed for learning, and they are part of how we all acquire our first language, so it makes sense to include them when acquiring a second language.

Most of the songs in this section use the progressive word-changing technique, but not every song lends itself to such a structure.

Būe Benā Senā Loncāððet-io Culin

There was an old lady who swallowed a fly
But I don't know why she swallowed the culin
I guess she'll die

There was an old benā who swallowed a spider
She swallowed the corron to get the culin
But I don't know peri she swallowed the culin
I guess she basiet

There was an old benā who loncāððet a mouse
She loncāððet the lucoten to get the corron
She loncāððet corron to get the culin
Extos I don't know peri she loncāððet culin
I guess basiet-sī

There was a benā senā who loncāððet a bird
Loncāððet-sī etnon to get the lucoten
Loncāððet-sī lucoten to get the corron
Loncāððet-sī corron ris get the culin
Extos I don't uidra peri loncāððet-sī culin
I guess basiet-sī

Būe benā senā who loncāððet a cat
Loncāððet-sī catton ris sagitē etnon
Loncāððet-sī etnon ris sagitē lucoten
Loncāððet-sī lucoten ris sagitē corron
Loncāððet-sī corron ris sagitē culin
Extos I ne uidra peri loncāððet-sī culin
Moniūr io basiet-sī

Būe benā senā loncāððet-io dog
Loncāððet-sī cunen ris sagitē catton
Loncāððet-sī catton ris sagitē etnon
Loncāððet-sī etnon ris sagitē lucoten
Loncāððet-sī lucoten ris sagitē corron
Loncāððet-sī corron ris sagitē culin
Extos ne uidra-mī peri loncāððet-sī culin
Moniūr io basiet-sī

Būe benā senā loncāððet-io horse
Loncāððet-sī epon ris sagitē cunen
Loncāððet-sī cunen ris sagitē catton
Loncāððet-sī catton ris sagitē etnon
Loncāððet-sī etnon ris sagitē lucoten
Loncāððet-sī lucoten ris sagitē corron
Loncāððet-sī corron ris sagitē culin
Extos ne uidra-mī peri loncāððet-sī culin
Bebaie-sī.

Biccā Cunincā Drū-Drū

The Gaulish name of the rabbit is derived from the adjective drūtos meaning silly or foolish, in parallel to the rabbit's English name which is suggestive of "fool" or French "fou" (crazy).

The Gaulish noun cunincā is grammatically feminine, and the adjectives' and participles' endings have to agree. It doesn't necessarily mean that Biccā Cunincā Drū-Drū is necessarily female, just as the word personne in French also takes feminine qualifiers regardless of the individual's actual gender.

Little bunny Foo-Foo
Hoppin' through the forest
Scoopin' up the field mice
And boppin' 'em on the head
And the Good Fairy said
Little cunincā Foo-Foo
I don't wanna see you
Scoopin' up the magē mice
And boppin' 'em on the pennū

And if you keep doing it,
I'll turn you into a loon.

And the next day...
Little cunincā Foo-Foo
Hoppin' trei the forest
Gabiaunā the magē mice
And binaunā 'em on the pennū
And the Good Sīdobenā said
Biccā cunincā Foo-Foo
I don't uelūr see you
Gabiaunā the magē lucotās
And binaunā 'em on the pennū

And mā you keep auuedes it,
I cambīsiū you into a gaudíin.

And the next dīū...
Biccā cunincā Foo-Foo
Hoppin' trei caiton
Gabiaunā magē lucotās
Ac binaunā 'em uer pennū
Ac the Sīdobenā Dagā said
Biccā cunincā Drū-Drū
I ne uelūr uriton you
Gabiaunā magē lucotās
Ac binaunā eiūs pennū

Ac mā eti auuedes-tū so,
Cambīsiū-mī-te gaudíin.

Ac neððamū dīū...
Biccā cunincā Drū-Drū
Lingaunā trei caiton
Gabiaunā magē lucotās
Ac binaunā eiūs pennū
Ac Sīdobenā Dagā sāpe
Biccā cunincā Drū-Drū
Ne uelūr-mī uriton ei-io
Gabiaunā magē lucotās
Ac binaunā eiūs pennū

Ac cambīsset-sī cunincin gaudíin.

Cauos Bundē Morēs

There's a hole in the bottom of the sea
There's a hole in the bottom of morēs
There's a hole
Eðði hole
Eðði cauos
Eðði cauos
Eðði cauos uer bottom morēs

There's a log on the cauū uer bottom morēs
Eðði log uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði log
Eðði log
Eðði biliā
Eðði biliā
Eðði biliā uer cauū uer bundū morēs

There's a branch on the bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði branch uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði branch
Eðði branch
Eðði cacus
Eðði cacus
Eðði cacus uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs

There's a twig on the cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði twig uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði twig
Eðði twig
Eðði slattā
Eðði slattā
Eðði slattā uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs

There's a leaf on the slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði leaf uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði leaf
Eðði leaf
Eðði doulā
Eðði doulā
Eðði doulā uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs

There's a frog on the doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði frog uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði frog
Eðði frog
Eðði craxsantos
Eðði craxsantos uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs

There's a wart on the craxsantū uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði wart uer craxsantū uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði wart
Eðði wart
Eðði gnobos
Eðði gnobos
Eðði gnobos uer craxsantū uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs

There's a bug on the gnobū uer craxsantū uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði bug uer gnobū uer craxsantū uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði bug
Eðði bug
Eðði leuos
Eðði leuos
Eðði leuos uer gnobū uer craxsantū uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs

There's a leg on the leuū uer gnobū uer craxsantū uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði leg uer leuū uer gnobū uer craxsantū uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði leg
Eðði leg
Eðði coxsos
Eðði coxsos
Eðði coxsos uer leuū uer gnobū uer craxsantū uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs

There's a hair on the coxsū uer leuū uer gnobū uer craxsantū uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði hair uer coxsū uer leuū uer gnobū uer craxsantū uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs
Eðði hair
Eðði hair
Eðði uoltilos
Eðði uoltilos uer coxsū uer leuū uer gnobū uer craxsantū uer doulī uer slattī uer cacū uer bilī uer cauū uer bundū morēs

Alaudā

This version differs from the original in the phrasing of the word for "pluck"; while plumerai refers specifically to the plucking of feathers, Celtic languages generally use a word meaning "pull" or "draw", or a borrowing from English or Latin, to refer to plucking. So it is necessary in Gaulish to specify that the things pulled are feathers.

The meaning of gabiet (fut. gaxsiet) is closer to "take" or "hold", but there are modern cognates that point to gabiet being the correct verb. The other Gaulish word for "pull" is tenet which is more like to stretch taut. Besides, the attested uses of the imperative form gabi are certainly consistent with the meaning of "pull".

Ā alaudā, blandā alaudā
Gaxsiū-mī ton etaniías
Etaniías au pennū tou x2
Ac pennū x2
Alaudā! x2
Ā-ā-ā-ā

Ā alaudā, blandā alaudā
Gaxsiū-mī ton etaniías
Etaniías au beccū tou x2
Ac beccū x2
Ac pennū x2
Alaudā! x2
Ā-ā-ā-ā

Ā alaudā, blandā alaudā
Gaxsiū-mī ton etaniías
Etaniías au dercobin x2
Ac dercobin x2
Ac beccū x2
Ac pennū x2
Alaudā! x2
Ā-ā-ā-ā

Ā alaudā, blandā alaudā
Gaxsiū-mī ton etaniías
Etaniías au moniclū x2
Ac moniclū x2
Ac dercobin x2
Ac beccū x2
Ac pennū x2
Alaudā! x2
Ā-ā-ā-ā

Ā alaudā, blandā alaudā
Gaxsiū-mī ton etaniías
Etaniías au etanibin x2
Ac etanibin x2
Ac moniclū x2
Ac dercobin x2
Ac beccū x2
Ac pennū x2
Alaudā! x2
Ā-ā-ā-ā

Ā alaudā, blandā alaudā
Gaxsiū-mī ton etaniías
Etaniías au coxsobin x2
Ac coxsobin x2
Ac etanibin x2
Ac moniclū x2
Ac dercobin x2
Ac beccū x2
Ac pennū x2
Alaudā! x2
Ā-ā-ā-ā

Ā alaudā, blandā alaudā
Gaxsiū-mī ton etaniías
Etaniías au lostū x2
Ac lostū x2
Ac coxsobin x2
Ac etanibin x2
Ac moniclū x2
Ac dercobin x2
Ac beccū x2
Ac pennū x2
Alaudā! x2
Ā-ā-ā-ā

Ā alaudā, blandā alaudā
Gaxsiū-mī ton etaniías
Etaniías au cebnū x2
Ac cebnū x2
Ac lostū x2
Ac coxsobin x2
Ac etanibin x2
Ac moniclū x2
Ac dercobin x2
Ac beccū x2
Ac pennū x2
Alaudā! x2
Ā-ā-ā-ā

Ā alaudā, blandā alaudā
Ā alaudā, gaxsiū-mī ton etaniías

Steros Dunníī Senī

This song is useful for:

Names of common animals;
Demonstratives (n. and f.);
Nom. and loc. of -os nouns.

Dunniou senū būe steros
In biutūti ulatēs
Ac sondē sterē būe epos
In biutūti ulatēs
Ac so ririri
Ac sindon ririri
Ac sin ririri
Ollocu ririri
Dunniou senū būe steros
In biutūti ulatēs

Ac sondē sterē būe cū
In biutūti ulatēs
Ac so rourou
Ac sindon rourou
Ac sin rourou
Ollocu rourou
Dunniou senū būe steros
In biutūti ulatēs

Ac sondē sterē būe iaris
In biutūti ulatēs
Ac sā clociā
Ac sondā clociā
Ac sindā clociā
Ollocu clociā
Dunniou senū būe steros
In biutūti ulatēs

Ac sondē sterē būe gansos
In biutūti ulatēs
Ac so on-on
Ac sindon on-on
Ac sin on-on
Ollocu on-on
Dunniou senū būe steros
In biutūti ulatēs

Ac sondē sterē būe bous
In biutūti ulatēs
Ac so mū-mū
Ac sindon mū-mū
Ac sin mū-mū
Ollocu mū-mū
Dunniou senū būe steros
In biutūti ulatēs

Ac sondē sterē būe moccos
In biutūti ulatēs
Ac so suīx-suī
Ac sindon suīx-suī
Ac sin suīx-suī
Ollocu suīx-suī
Dunniou senū būe steros
In biutūti ulatēs

Ac sondē sterē būe cattos
In biutūti ulatēs
Ac so miū-miū
Ac sindon miū-miū
Ac sin miū-miū
Ollocu miū-miū
Dunniou senū būe steros
In biutūti ulatēs

Ac sondē sterē būe moltū
In biutūti ulatēs
Ac so bēa-bēa
Ac sindon bēa-bēa
Ac sin bēa-bēa
Ollocu bēa-bēa
Dunniou senū būe steros
In biutūti ulatēs

Ac sondē sterē būe burdus
In biutūti ulatēs
Ac so ī-ā
Ac sindon ī-ā
Ac sin ī-ā
Ollocu ī-ā
Dunniou senū būe steros
In biutūti ulatēs

Marcā Lētā Senā

The old gray mare, she ain't what she used to be,
Ain't what she used to be, ain't what eiāto-sī,
The old gray marcā ain't io eiāto-sī,
Many years ago.

Many blēdniābi ago, many blēdniābi ago,
The old marcā lētā, ne eðði io eiāto-sī,
Eluābi blēdniābi ago.

The old marcā lētā, she kicked on the whiffletree,
Kicked uer the whiffletree, sirt uer the whiffletree,
Marcā lētā senā, sirt-sī uer cagiobi,
Eri eluābi blēdniābi.

Eri elābi blēdniābi, eri elābi blēdniābi,
Marcā lētā senā, sirt-sī uer cagiobi,
Eri eluābi blēdniābi.

Biccos Meios Corros

Biccos meios corros rext uer beccon dubrī.
Uo cāde unnā ac leloue corron.
Sonnos monīssetor ac auuōt unnin tartin
Ac biccos meios corros ate rext-i uer beccon.

Eðði Acamnā in mou Cilurnē

There's a hole in my bucket, dear Lubitiātā,
There's acamnā in my bucket.

Then mend it, dear Treborīxs,
Then dexsisiōxs it.

With what shall I mend íin, dear Lubitiātā, inti what?
Inti what dexsisiaxsiū íin?

Inti straw, carate Treborīxs,
Inti ueltin.

The ueltā is too long, caratā Lubitiātā,
The ueltā is rocenā.

Then cut it, carate Treborīxs,
Then bebīs it.

Inti what shall I cut sian, caratā Lubitiātā?
Inti pidā bisiū sian?

Inti a knife, carate Treborīxs,
Inti scēnin.

The scēnā is ro dull, caratā Lubitiātā,
The scēnā is roladanā.

Then sharpen sian, carate Treborīxs,
Maeðid acrosiōxs sian.

Inti pidā acrosiaxsiū sian, caratā Lubitiātā?
Inti pidā acrosiaxsiū sian?

Inti a stone, carate Treborīxs,
Inti acaunon.

The acaunon is ro dry, caratā Lubitiātā,
Acaunon eðði rotarton.

Maeðid wet id, carate Treborīxs,
Maeðid uliposiōxs id.

Inti pidā uliposioxsiū id, caratā Lubitiātā?
Inti pidā uliposioxsiū id?

Inti water, carate Treborīxs,
Inti dubron.

Inti pidā shall I fetch id, caratā Lubitiātā?
Inti pidā congaxsiū id?

Inti a bucket, carate Treborīxs,
Inti cilurnon.

Extos eðði acamnā in my cilurnē, caratā Lubitiātā,
Eðði acamnā in mou cilurnē.

When I was first learning Gaulish, I asked about possibly setting up a modern interpretation of the Coligny calendar on my website, if someone could point me in the right direction about how the ancient calendar works. What I got was a harshly worded reply to the effect that there would be dire consequences if I did anything but contact specific persons in order to use a modern copyrighted version. I promptly dropped the subject and made damn sure to never bring it up again. I do not take kindly to random people's mean spirited K.I.s, when such language is unnecessary and uncalled for. Eventually, I did end up finding the answer I was looking for in the first place, as well as a photo and a drawing of the original artifact.

There is a really nice modern version of the Coligny calendar here, but I wanted to create one that was closer to the original, including the various notations as best as can be reconstructed, even though it's not known what all of them mean. My only copyrighted sources are Wikipedia and Skribbatous, and in obedience to the terms of my sources, my calendar is available under the CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

The current Gaulish date is:
(please enable Javascript) since Uercingetorixs' unification of the Gauls.

Click for calendar.

The Gaulish calendar doesn't have anything like days of the week, however it is reasonable when talking about time in the modern day to have Gaulish terms for the seven-day week. Many of the Gaulish gods and goddesses are identified with Roman and Germanic equivalents, and in the present day, Romance languages and Germanic languages name their weekdays after their respective pagan gods. In that spirit, beside existing weekday names, I propose the following Gaulish names for the days of the week in the rightmost column of the below table:

English name	Germanic deity	French name	Roman deity	Gaulish name
Monday	Máni	lundi	Luna	dius Lugriās
Tuesday	Týr/Tiw	mardi	Mars	dius Aisous
Wednesday	Woden/Odin	mercredi	Mercurius	dius Lugous
Thursday	Þórr	jeudi	Jupiter	dius Taranēs
Friday	Freyja/Frigg	vendredi	Venus	dius Ðironiās
Saturday	(Njörðr)	samedi	Saturnus	dius Carnoni
Sunday	Sól/Sunna	dimanche	(Sol)	dius Granni

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language:
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Vocabulary: Greetings and Courtesy

Common greetings include:

rocenon!, lit. too long or too far, implying it has been too long since you last saw the person(s);
slānon!, slāntiā!, literally health;
suauelon!, lit. good-wind, as in it is a good wind that brings you here;
subutā!, lit. well being;
sulubī!, welcome!

Each of the above can be followed by:

popi tū?, how are you?
popi suīs?, how are you (pl.)?
mati = well
anmati = not so good
uindobitū = happy/prosperous
rosmertū = successful/prosperous
lauenobitū = happy/blissful
canī = fine, so-so, no news is good news
sergiū = unwell
trougū = poorly, sad, miserable
ac tū? and you?
ac suīs? and you (pl.)?

To give thanks, you can use the term brātou. If talking to one person, you can also say brāton tei, or if to more than one person, brāton umē. All of these mean "thank you" or "thanks".

The closest equivalent to "please" would be mā eððid tou tolistos, or mā tolistos for short. This actually means "if it is your will", which parallels ways to make polite requests in related languages.

To say goodbye/farewell, you can say po suessis, which means something like "fare well until we meet again." If you are giving thanks, you can also combine brāton tei with slānon tei (or umē, as the case may be) before saying farewell.

Invocations to gods and goddesses close with a specific set of courtesies: slānon tei, brāton tei, molātun tei, tēgū/tēgomos in tancē, meaning "health to you, thanks to you, praise to you, I/we go in peace."

Expressing Wishes

To express the desire for something, you can use the verbs cobrāiū, mendū, suantū, and uelūr more or less interchangeably. Each one can be used in the following ways:

With io:
dubron ibū-mī-io uelūr = I wish that I drink water, i.e. I want to drink some water;
With a verbal noun:
mendū-mī ibetin dubrī = I want the drinking of water, i.e. I want to drink some water;
With an accusative of the thing wanted, e.g.:
suantū-mī dubron = I fancy water, i.e. I want some water.

(When using a verbal noun this way, it takes the accusative case, and the object of the desired action takes the genitive case.)

All four verbs mean "want", "wish for", or "desire", but there are shades of meaning: cobrāiū is related to meanings of longing and support; mendū may have connotations of thought, mind, and intent; suantū, depending on context and usage, can have connotations of lust; uelūr resembles words meaning "see" and "know", although its verbal noun is suanton.

Here's how to ask someone if they want something:

dubron ibes-tū-io an ueletār? = do you want to drink some water?
an suantes-tū dubron? = do you want some water?
an mendes-tū ibetin dubrī? = do you want to drink some water?
an cobrāi-tū dubron? = do you want some water?
dubron ibete-suīs-io an mendete? = do you (pl.) want to drink some water?
an cobrāte-suīs ibetin dubrī? = do you (pl.) want to drink some water?
an uelete-suīs ibetin dubrī? = do you (pl.) want to drink some water?
an suantete-suīs dubron? = do you (pl.) want some water?
ne uelūr-mī nepon, brātou = I don't want anything, thank you.

Know that all of these different words for "want" are interchangeable in all of these ways to phrase the question.

To say "I like [something]" there are a couple possibilities. You can say "I like ___" directly, with a regular noun or a verbal noun, or you can say "___ pleases me." There's a difference in the case of the noun in these two usages, however.

lubiū-mī ... = I like ....
areueriāt me ... = ... pleases me.
lubiū-mī odion = I like to stroll.
areueriāt me odion = strolling pleases me.
lubiū-mī snāmin = I like to swim.
areueriāt me snāmā = swimming pleases me.
lubiū-mī cantlon = I like music.
areueriāt me cantlon = music pleases me.
lubiū-mī depron = I like food/to eat.
areueriāt me depron = food/eating pleases me.
lubiū-mī cicon = I like meat.
areueriāt me cicos = meat pleases me.
lubiū-mī oclon = I like to drink.
areueriāt me oclon = drinking pleases me.
lubiū-mī blixton = I like milk.
areueriāt me blixtos = milk pleases me.
lubiū-mī sauelidīūs = I like sunny days.
areueriāt me sauelidīoues = sunny days please me.
lubiū-mī dregīn brigon = I like climbing mountains.
areueriāt me dregiā brigon = climbing mountains pleases me.
An lubīs-tū mou cucullillon? = do you like my hat?
Lubīmos-nīs lugrin = we like the moon.

In the above list, cantlon, oclon, odion, and depron are neuters so their endings don't change between the two cases (nominative and accusative), while brigon is a genitive plural (gen. singular is brigos) and therefore its case doesn't change.

an lubīs-tū odion? = do you like to stroll?
an areueriāt te odion? = does strolling please you?
lubīt-sī odion = she likes to stroll.
areueriāt sian odion = strolling pleases her.
lubīt-īs odion = he likes to stroll.
areueriāt eion odion = strolling pleases him.
mou caranð lubīt odion = my friend likes to stroll.
areueriāt mou caranten odion = strolling pleases my friend.
lubīmos-nīs odion = we like to stroll.
areueriāt nos odion = strolling pleases us.
an lubīte-suīs odion? = do you (pl.) like to stroll?
an areueriāt suos odion? = does strolling please you (pl.)?
lubīnt-sies odion = they (f.) like to stroll.
lubīnt-íis odion = they (m. or mixed) like to stroll.
areueriāt ī odion = strolling pleases them (f.).
areueriāt sies odion = strolling pleases them (m. or mixed).

Using forms of lubīt with a person implies romantic or sexual interest. A stronger way to express that is with suantet.

You can also express affection for a person using carāt, meaning love. This word does not distinguish between romantic, platonic, or familial love.

carāiū-mī mou catton/in = I love my cat (m/f).
carāiū-mī mou mapatās = I love my kids.
carāiū-mī mon uenīn = I love my family.
carāiū-mī mou carantās = I love my friends.
carāt-iā-ian = she loves her (-iā means the same as -sī).
carāt-iā-in = she loves him.
carāt-īs-ian = he loves her.
carāt-sī-te = she loves you.
carāt-īs-te = he loves you.
carāiū-mī-ian = I love her.
carāiū-mī-in = I love him.
an carāi-tū-ian? = do you love her?
an carāi-tū-in? = do you love him?
lubiū-mī-in extos an carāiū-mī-in? = I like him but do I love him?
carāiū-mī-te = I love you.
etc.

The double suffixed verb is just another way to say the same thing, so we can also say for example carāt-īs sian or areueriāt-id-ian odion.

And because "like" has two meanings...

To say one person or thing is like another, use samalos with the dative of the compared-to entity.

eðði-sī mātrē samalā = she is like her mother.

Vocabulary: Knowledge and Understanding

There are three verbs meaning "to know", and it is important to distinguish between them.

Firstly, the verb meaning to know well in a passive sense, for example by having witnessed something:

uidra-mī io ne uerset = I know that it is not raining (because I saw that it isn't).
uidra-mī ton panton = I know your pain (because I have suffered it too).
an uidras-tū pidā adpepisan? = do you know what I saw? (E.g. because you saw it too?)
uidate-suīs pidā iexsū = you (pl.) know what I'm about to say...

Next, the verb meaning to know as a result of study or actively finding out:

gniíū-mī pū dū labarion Iextī Galation = I know how to speak Gaulish (e.g. because I've studied it).
an gniíes-tū pū dū uocantlon? = do you know how to play a musical instrument? (I.e. have you learned how?)
an gniíes-tū pidā tou cū auuedet? = do you know what your dog is doing? (I.e. are you keeping track?)
an gniíete-suīs pidā sueson mapos auuedet? = do you (pl.) know what your son is doing?

Finally, the verb meaning to get to know:

uinnūr-mī mou caranten inti uellon = I'm getting to know my friend better.
uinnetār-tū Iextin Galation inti abrodagon = you're getting to know Gaulish very well.
an uinnete-suīs sueson uercantlā, uoglennī? = are you (pl.) getting to know your lesson material, students?

All three verbs for "to know" have the same verbal noun uissus:

uelūr-mī uissun pidā amman eðði sindīū = I want to know what the weather* is today.
anne ueletār ambi biuobi ad ðirābi allābi? = don't you want to find out about life around other stars?

*amman means both "time" and "weather", much like temps in French.

The verb meaning "to hear" has two different conjugations, an active one and a passive one. The active conjugation means something closer to "listen", while the passive conjugation means something more like "it comes to my/your/etc ears."

clinūr-mī cantlon = I hear music.
anne clinutār-tū sindin cantlon? = don't you hear that music?
anne clinute-suīs sindin cantlon? = don't you (pl.) hear that music?
versus...
cluiū cantlon = I am listening to music.
anne cluies-tū cantlon? = aren't you listening to music?
anne cluiete-suīs cantlon? = aren't you (pl.) listening to music?

The verbal nouns for these two aspects of "hear" are cloustā (passive) and clouetus (active).

cantlī clouetun suantū = I want to listen to some music.
cantlī cloustin suantū = I want to hear some music.

Both conjugations of "to hear" also mean "to understand":

an clinutār-tū-mī? = do you understand? (Lit. do you hear me?)
cluiū-mī-te = I understand, lit. I'm listening to you.

There are also verbs for "understand": peilāt (see the AI. conjugation in the verb tables), with connotations of sense and reason, tuosseget (BI. conjugation), with connotations of finding out, and tanget (BIII. conjugation) meaning more to agree or relate.

peilāiū-mī sān scrībbin = I understand this inscription (e.g. I can make sense of it).
uelūr-mī puillin* peri uerbebiíe sosin = I want to understand why this happened.
uidra-mī tou panton ac tangū = I understand your pain and I can relate.

*puillā is the verbal noun of tuosseget.

Vocabulary: Travel, Transportation, Places

The word for "go" is tēget, with verbal noun dalus, and "to come" is monītor, verbal noun monītus.

Some destinations of tēget include:

magos (m.), open air market, e.g.
tēgū ad magon ris pritē nepon = I am going to the market to buy something.
duron (m.), enclosed market, e.g.
tēgū ad duron ris pritē nepon = I am going to the market to buy something.
tegos (n.), house, e.g.
tēgū ad tegos mou carantos = I am going to my friend's house.
plation (n.), public square, e.g.
tēgū ad plation = I am going to the plaza.
popotegos (n.), bakery, e.g.
tēgū ad popotegos = I am going to the bakery.
traxtus (m.), beach, shore, e.g.
tēgū ad traxtun = I am going to the beach.
attrebā (f.) home, e.g.
tēgū ad attrebin = I am going home.

In the first two sentences we specify "to buy something" as contextual information because magos also means open plain and duron also means gate.

With different persons:

an tēges-tū ad magon? = are you going to the market?
an tēgete-suīs ad duron? = are you (pl.) going to the market?
tēgomos-nīs ad magon = we are going to the market.
mon carantes tēgont-íis ad duron = my friends are going to the market.
mou suiūr tēget-iā ad magon = my sister is going to the market.
mou brātīr tēget-īs ad duron = my brother is going to the market.

Some more examples:

an ueletār dalun ad magon? = Do you want to go to the market?
an suantes dalun odiū? = Do you want to go for a walk? (Odion = walk, stroll.)
an suantes dalun ad traxtun? = Do you want to go to the beach?
cobrāiū-mī dalun ad Parision dīū nepū = I want to go to Paris someday.
ludū-mī ad popotegos = I went to the bakery.
an ludes-tū ad plation? = Did you go to the plaza?
an ludete-suīs ad plation? = Did you (plural) go to the plaza?
soso biccos banuos ludi ad duron = this little piggie went to the market.
ludomes-nīs ad attrebin = We went home.

The future tense of tēget is rigāset.

Some modes of travel:

carros, chariot, car, e.g.
tēgū inti carron = I am going by car.
rigāsū inti carron = I will go by car.
longos, boat, ship, e.g.
tēgū inti longon = I am going by boat.
rigāsū inti longon = I will go by boat.
epos, horse, e.g.
tēgū inti epon = I am going by horse.
rigāsū inti epon = I will go by horse.
trageð, foot, e.g.
tēgū inti trageten = I am going by foot.
rigāsū inti trageten = I will go by foot.

Vocabulary: Numbers and Counting

Since the numerals tab contains a large amount of information all in one place, here is a simple walk-through of counting in Gaulish. First, the numbers one to ten:

oinon
dāu
trī
petuār
pempe
suexs
sextan
oxtū
nauan
decan

The number 5 sometimes occurs as pimpe rather than pempe. The two ways to write it are fully interchangeable and seem to reflect that the pronunciation would be the same or almost the same.

Counting from eleven to nineteen is easier than in many languages, because the numbers all end in -decan:

oindecan
dāudecan
trīdecan
petrudecan
pempedecan
suedecan
sextadecan
oxtūdecan
naudecan

Numbers from one to nineteen act like adjectives, and usually precede the noun unless placed after it for emphasis. The noun is then free to take on its usual case endings. Numbers one through four decline with the noun. Number one declines like an -os/ā adjective. See the Numbers tab for the declensions of two, three, and four.

French gets a lot of ribbing for saying "four twenties" (quatre vingt) to mean eighty. But that method of counting by twenties actually came from Gaulish. The Gaulish word for twenty is uīcantī, which functions grammatically as a feminine noun. Thirty is uīcantī decan literally twenty-ten, forty is duī uīcantíī literally two twenties (notice the dual ending), fifty is duī uīcantíī decan, sixty is tedres uīcantiās with a plural ending, eighty is petedres uīcantiās, and ninety is petedres uīcantiās decan. But there's good news! The counting-by-twenties system is optional in Gaulish! Here are the "normal" versions of the numbers 20 to 90:

When using twenties to count something, the uīcantī becomes the head noun, and whatever there's twenty of goes in the genitive plural.

uīcantī
trīcontā
petrucontā
pempecontā
suescontā
sextacontā
oxtūcontā
naucontā

One hundred is centon. Numbers from two hundred to nine hundred resemble twelve through nineteen, e.g. dāucanton, etc.

The word for a thousand is gellon.

Vocabulary: Colors

liuon color
liuā colors
alātos multicolor
brextios dappled
ercos spotted, speckled
glanos clear

dubus	lētos	uindos	dunnos
roudos	uebros	melinos	glassos
bugios	gurmos	argios	canecos

Combinations of the basic color names are possible:

melinodubus yellowish brown, dark yellow, tawny
melinoroudos yellowish-red, auburn, tawny, red (of hair)
melinouindos light yellow, cream straw-yellow
uindodubus dun, dark, brown, swarthy
etc.

Vocabulary: Food and Drink

Before we eat, we have to set the table.

bracā napkin
gablos fork
scēnos knife
legā spoon
sitiā plate
cumbos bowl
annā cup, glass

The verbs for "eat" are depret and edet/itet. "To drink" is ibet.

deprū-mī-io uelūr = I want to eat [something].
an ueletār edes-tū-io nepon? = Do you want to eat something? (Nepon = something.)
ibū-mī-io uelūr = I want to drink.

The corresponding verbal nouns are depron, esson (or edon), ition, and ibetis.

depron nepī uelūr = I want to eat something, lit. I want the eating of something.
ition nepī uelūr = I want to eat something, lit. I want the eating of something.
ibetin nepī uelūr = I want to drink something, lit. I want the drinking of something.
an ueletār depron? = Do you want to eat?
an ueletār ibetin? = Do you want to drink?

We can also express the desire to eat and drink with a gerundive, which has the meaning of "for" or "to":

depreteios = to eat, for eating, to be eaten
ibeteios = to drink, for drinking, to be drunk
an ueletār nepon depreteion? = Do you want something to eat?
an ueletār nepon ibeteion? = Do you want something to drink?
uelūr nepon depreteion = I want something to eat.
uelūr nepon ibeteion = I want something to drink.

Some useful terms relating to food and drink in general include:

bēton food
depron food, nourishment, diet
ition meal (i.e. a quantity of food eaten to fill oneself up in one sitting)
iuttā soup, buillon, broth, porridge
loscītos burnt, scorched
maxtion nutrition, nourishment
omos raw
pepos cooked
popet to cook (VN poxtus)
poppos cook, chef, baker, also the act of baking
tuððos oven, also batch

In particular, the noun bēton forms several compounds for types of food:

agrobēton battle ration(s)
blixtubēton milk diet; dairy product
garuobēton bitter food
melissobēton sweet food, dessert
moribēton seafood
uindobēton white meat; dairy-based food

Specifically, blixtubēton refers to ingredients and standalone items like cheese, cream, etc. while uindobēton when referring to dairy products means something that has been prepared with dairy as a main ingredient.

Terms relating to cereal, grain, and baked or fried items:

arincā cereal, grain
baragon bread
bareginā slice or piece of bread
crampettā pancake
itu grain

Terms relating to meat and dairy, including types of meat, generally called by the same word as the source animal:

āuiíon egg (plural āuiíā)
blixtos, laxton, melgos milk
bous cow (gen. bouos)
bracā rump
cicos meat
crammā cream
crouios rare, bloody
escos fish
gabros goat
iaris/iaros chicken
iorcos venison, deer
moccos pig, pork
ouignos, aunos lamb
ouis sheep, mutton
suris cheese
uxsū beef; ox, bull

Terms relating to fruits, berries, and nuts:

aballon apple
agronā fruit
bundacnouā peanut
cairā berry
cairasagiet go berrypicking (VN cairasagitis)
cnouā, cnous nut, especially hazelnut
cnustos the act of going into the woods to gather nuts and fruits
dressis blackberry
scobis elderberry
smēros blackberry
subi strawberry
toraton fruit

Terms relating to drinks, with and without alcohol:

blixtos milk
bracis malt
ceruesiā, curmi beer
dubron water
medu mead
uīnon wine

Vocabulary: Time and Weather

Words for units of time include:

blēdnī year
sonnocingos year (lit. sun-march)
mīð month
oxtunoxtion week
lation day
orā hour
lauon minute

Phrases:

sublēdniā nouiā = happy new year!
poterā orā eðði? = what time is it?

Some times of day:

uasris dawn
bāregos morning
dīus day, daytime (pronounce the I and U as separate vowels.)
uxserion midday, noon
uixseros afternoon
uespros evening
arenoxs dusk
noxs night

Phrases:

su-bāregū = good morning
su-uixserū = good afternoon
su-uesprū = good evening
su-noxtī = good night

These are in the instrumental case. The word for night is noxs, a feminine irregular noun with the stem noxt-. The other three nouns are all masculine.

Some specific times:

sinbāregū this morning
sindīū today
sinnoxti tonight
bāregū tomorrow, lit. in the morning
trimodīū the day after tomorrow
deis yesterday
dīū are giestarnū day before yesterday

The Gaulish New Year happens in May or June as the weather is warming up. This time is considered the beginning of summer, and in classical times a festival was held. Festivals also marked the other changes of seasons, as well as at other times during the year. The names of the four seasons are:

samos, summer;
antumnon, autumn;
giamos, winter;
uasantos, spring.

The calendar divides the year into two seasons, the Samonios season including summer and fall and the Giamonios season including winter and spring. The names of the months are known from the Coligny calendar, and are attested as follows:

Samonios, Dumannios, Riuros, Anaganntios, Ogronios, Cutios,
Giamonios, Simiuisonna, Equos, Elembiuos, Aedrinios, Cantlos.

Most of the pairs of months seem to contrast in some way; Samonios summer and Giamonios winter; Riuros interpreted as "fat month", implying decreased activity, and Equos pertaining to horses, implying increased activity; Ogronios referring to cold, probably the cooling of the weather, vs. Aedrinios referring to fire or perhaps the weather getting warmer; Cutios a time of invocations, perhaps solemn, vs. Cantlos a time of chanting and song, perhaps celebratory. The contrast between Dumannios (smoke) and Simiuisonna (spring) is less clear, but may have originally had to do with the birth/death cycle. It seems very likely that Anaganntios and Elembiuos, whose meanings are uncertain, would probably also have contrastive senses.

Weather is equated with time in Gaulish, via the semantic linkage of "season". The word amman means time as in a while or a period of time, but can also mean season or weather. Another word for weather is sīnā. Here is some vocabulary and some phrases for describing the weather:

aros, regos, reusos frost, freeze
auelā, uintos breeze, wind
cassarā hail, hailstone; also rain shower
dusīnā bad (stormy) weather
gaiton gale, high winds
garuomori rough sea
iagrason snow
louon, uolcon, urassā rain
neolā, nelā cloud
sauelidīus sunny day
sīnā good weather
taranus storm
tartos dry weather

cassarā cēdet = it's hailing, lit. hail is falling.
ðirācā eðði sinnoxs = it's starry tonight.
dusīnā eðði = it's bad weather.
gaiton eðði = there's a high wind.
neolācos/ā* eðði = it's cloudy.
reusos eðði = there's a frost.
sauelidīus eðði = it's sunny.
sīnā eðði = it's good weather.
sniuet = it is snowing.
taranus eðði = it's stormy weather.
tartos eðði = it's dry weather.
uerset = it is raining.
uintos eðði = there's a breeze.
uolcet = it is rain-showering (also means s/he is cleansing).

*Use the feminine of the adjective if it's night time to agree with the gender of noxs. Otherwise, the remaining times of day are masculine.

And some adjectives to describe temperature:

o(u)gros cold
cliíaros comfortable, warm enough
temmos warm, hot
poxtos, tāios hot

When talking about temperature in terms of comfort level, it is most usual to use a noun with "have", e.g.:

mieði tassus = I have heat, i.e. I'm too hot;
mieði ogron* = I have cold, i.e. I'm too cold.

*o(u)gron is the noun that means cold; it's a neuter noun hence the -on in the nominative.

Vocabulary: Work

Useful phrases:

trātus iteios ad uergon = time to go to work.
cemmon uergī = start of work / to start working
carāiū-mī mou saituron = I love my job/career.
atecā itiū = meal break
uegū-mī urextūs sosiū inedū ci = I'm trying to work over here!
trātus iteios ad attrebin = time to go home.
arepennon oxtunoxtī = weekend
ne gallū-mī urextun in soiū īsselobitū = I can't work under these conditions.
uoadgabiū-mī so uergon = I quit, lit. I abandon this work.
immi scrībbātis = I'm a writer.
immi rinacios/ā = I'm a salesperson.
ne immi liagis = I am not a doctor (IANAD).
ne immi adgarios/ā = I am not a lawyer (IANAL).
mou mātīr eðði poppā = my mother is a cook.
mou atīr eðði cerdū = my father is a craftsman.
mou suiūr eðði uoglennā = my sister is a student.
mou brātīr eðði moritexs = my brother is a sailor.
mou mātripā eðði druidessā = my aunt is a druidess.
mou comprinnos/ā eðði sontialos/ā = my spouse is a teacher.

List of occupations, by category:

Arts:
- bardos/ā bard, singer, poet
- cerdū artisan, craftsman
- scrībbātis writer, scribe
- pritios/ā poet, artist, composer
Business:
- attrebatos/ā landlord; proprietor
- cuniatos/ā boss, chief
- rinacios/ā merchant, salesperson
- ueneð merchant (also means friendly)
Education:
- altrauos/ā instructor, mentor
- sontialos/ā teacher
- uoglennos/ā student
Farming and Pastoral:
- arað servant, esp. on a farm
- borbetos/ā caretaker of animals
- boucolios/ā cowherd
- brigū farmhand
- ouiogarios/ā shepherd
- sterios/ā farmer
Labor:
- caxtos/ā slave, prisoner
- mauis maid, servant
- tegesācos/ā laborer
Law:
- adgarios/ā lawyer
- barnaunos/ā judge
- sedouāssos/ā police officer
- uernos/ā guard
Medicine and Care:
- donā nurse
- liagis healer, physician
- mammā wet nurse
- nanī nanny (also means grandmother)
Military and Maritime:
- camulos/ā champion, combatant
- cingeð soldier
- erreð rower
- moritexs sailor
- uellaunos/ā captain
Politics and Royalty:
- ambactos/ā ambassador
- brigantīnos/ā head of state
- magalos/ā, ualos/ā, ulatos/ā prince(ss)
- riganī queen
- rīxs king
Production and Transportation:
- areseð driver (of vehicles)
- caraios/ā shoemaker, cobbler
- cerdū artisan, craftsman
- dugilos/ā artisan, maker
- gobanios/ā smith, blacksmith
- poppos/ā baker
Religion:
- amarcos/ā religious servant
- drūið, druidessā druid, priest(ess)
- ueledos/ā seer, prophet

There are several occupation names that end in -uiros (man), unfortunately it is not known what the feminines of these words are. Here are some of them:

betouiros grocer
caitouiros forester
īarnouiros ironworker
iextiuiros linguist
meliuiros beekeeper
salenouiros salt dealer
uolcouiros falconer
uoltouiros barber, hairdresser

It is not unreasonable to neologize these terms by replacing -uiros with -donios/ā, like how in English we've replaced terms like "salesman" with the more inclusive "salesperson". There still should be some way to include non-binary identity, but for now at least we can say:

mou mātripā eðði uoltodoniā = my aunt is a hairdresser.
mou comnetrouiā eðði melidoniā = my cousin (f.) is a beekeeper.
mou duxtīr ueletor eðði-io iextudoniā = my daughter wants to be a linguist (when she grows up).
etc.

Vocabulary: Leisure and Recreation

amman aramon leisure time
ateuessā relaxation
bagros game
diluxtiā free time, play time, also vacation
drenget brigen climb a mountain (VN dregiā brigos)
locu lake, pool
mori sea, ocean
odion stroll
suemet to swim (VN suemon)
traxtus beach
uoriget to play (VN uorēgon)

uelūr-mī dalun ad traxtun ris uorēgū = I want to go to the beach to play.
uelūr-mī dalun ad locu ris suemū = I want to go to the pool/lake to swim.
an ueletār dalun odiū? = do you want to go for a stroll?
an ueletār dalun suemū? = do you want to go for a swim?
cutrō axsietār-tū ris diluxtī īton? = where are you going on your vacation?
cutrō axsiete-suīs ris diluxtī sueson? = where are you (pl.) going on your vacation?
axsiūr-mī ad mori ac toni appissiū Massaliíin = I'm going to the ocean and then I'll see Marseilles.
axsiomor-nīs ad mori ac toni appissiomos Massaliíin = We are going to the ocean and then we'll see Marseilles.
clinūr-mī io Massaliíā eðði matis = I hear Marseilles is nice.

axsiūr is the future tense of tēgū. Notice also the future tense of the first person of appiset meaning "see".

siuoman-mī in locū = I swam in the lake/pool.
an siuomas-tū in locū? = did you swim in the lake/pool?
siuomes-nīs in morī = We swam in the sea.
an siuomate-suīs in morī? = did you (pl.) swim in the sea?
mou suiūr siuome in locū = my sister swam in the lake/pool.
mou regeniā siuomar in morī = my parents swam in the sea.

Vocabulary: Education

altrauos/ā instructor, mentor
sontialos/ā teacher
uercantlon education, teaching
uissutegiā school
uoglennos/ā student

ad poterin uissutegíin tēges-tū? = what school do you go to?
mou duxtīr eðði uoglennā = my daughter is a student.
mou mapos ueletor butin sontialos = my son wants to be a teacher.

Vocabulary: Family and Friends

The basic word for friend is caranð. However, there are other words that can mean friend, neighbor, companion, or even romantic partner or spouse. Gaulish doesn't always make a platonic vs. romantic distinction, so some of the words blur this line.

caranð (m/f) friend
carouiros (m) kinsman, friend, loved one
c(e)ilios/ā (m/f) companion, spouse, husband, wife, consort, mate, fellow, buddy, friend
comargis comrade, companion
citbios/ā life partner
marocaranð (m/f) best friend, confidant, great friend, great kinsman
senticī (f) wife, girlfriend, bride
sucarus (m/f) good friend, dearest
sentiíos/ā (m/f) companion, neighbor, soulmate, partner, spouse, consort, mate, playmate

sosos eðði mou caranð = This is my friend (m.).
sosā eðði mou marocaranð = This is my best friend (f.).
sosos eðði mou comargis = This is my comrade (m.).
sosā eðði mou senticī = This is my girlfriend/wife.
sosos eðði mou cilios = This is my companion (m., ambiguous).
If you are a man, it would likely be assumed that this is your good buddy, whereas if you are a woman, it would be assumed that this is your husband or boyfriend.
sosā eðði mou ciliā = This is my companion (f., ambiguous).
Cf. the usage of "girlfriend" by platonic heterosexual women in English.

There is, however, an adjective comprinnos attested in the specific context of a wedding contract, with the meaning of "joined in matrimony", so if you introduce someone as your comprinnos/ā, then you are specifically identifying them as your spouse.

sosos eðði mou comprinnos = This is my husband.
sosā eðði mou comprinnā = This is my wife.

Kinship terms are more clearly defined. First the terms for immediate family:

mātīr mother
atīr father
duxtir daughter
mapos son
suiūr sister
brātīr brother

And extended family terms:

auā grandmother
auīr grandfather
auiíā granddaughter
auiíos grandson
arauiíā great granddaughter
arauiíos great grandson
mātripā aunt
auontīr uncle
comnetrouiā cousin (f.)
comnetros cousin (m.)
suecrus mother in law
daiuir husband's brother
senatīr ancestor, grandfather, elder
regentios/ā ancestor

Vocabulary: Health

mieði slāntiā = I am healthy.
mieði agloð = I have pain.
mieði suergos = I am sick.
mieði goni = I am wounded.
mieði critos = I have the shakes/a tremor/a fever.
mieði cnitā = I have a sore.
mon auī eðði suergos* = my grandmother is sick.
mon atri eðði goni* = my father is wounded.
mou duxtri eðði critos* = my daughter has the shakes/a fever.
mou mapū eðði cnitā* = my son has a sore.

*Be careful with the case endings on these; the word order is object-verb-subject, literally "to my grandmother is illness" etc. That means the word after eðði won't change depending on the person's gender, but the word for the sufferer will be in the dative case.

lobros/ā immi = I am weak (with illness).
sergios/ā immi = I am unwell.
ne gallū depron = I can't eat.
ne gallū sounon = I can't sleep.
ne gallet labarion = s/he can't talk.
ne gallet anatlon = s/he can't breathe.
naudū liagin = I need a doctor.
mou sentiíos/ā naudet liagin = My partner needs a doctor.
mou caranð naudet liagin = my friend needs a doctor.
an ei-tū liagis? = are you a doctor?
anne eðði liagis adgossū? = isn't there a doctor near?
ne eðði nepon io gallū auuedenin = there's nothing I can do.
ne buet nepon io gallū auuedenin = there was nothing I could do.
inti trougon, bebaie = unfortunately, s/he has died.

SAGITIDOVLA VIÐÐVIANTIAS IEXTI GALATION ~ Uissuiantā's Gaulish Reference

Introduction

The Gaulish Language

Conventions

Sources

Font

"Modern Gaulish"

Nominative

Vocative

Accusative

Genitive

Dative

Instrumental

Locative

Phonology

Accentuation

Vowels

Diphthongs

Consonants

Nouns: O-declension Animate

Example: etnos, bird.

Nouns: O-Declension Neuter

Example: prennon, tree.

Nouns: A-Declension

Examples: cantlā, song; blēdnī, year.

Nouns: I-Stem Animate

Example: elantis, deer.

Nouns: I-Stem Neuter

Example: boudi, victory.

Nouns: U-Declension Animate

Example: britus, thought.

Nouns: U-Declension Neuter

Example: locu, lake.

Nouns: Dental-Stem Animate

Example: caranð, friend.

Declension of dant, tooth.

Nouns: Velar Declension

Example: rīxs, king.

Nouns: Nasal Declension - Animate

Example: cū, dog.

Nouns: Nasal Declension - Neuter

Example: anuan, name.

Nouns: R Declension

Examples: mātīr, mother; suiūr, sister.

Nouns: S-Declension Neuters

Example: nemos, sky.

Combining Forms of Nouns

Examples:

Adjectives: O/A Declension

Example: māros, great.

Adjectives: I-Declension

Example: letis, wider.

Adjectives: U-Declension

Example: elus, much, many.

Adjectives: Consonant Declension

Example: trūxs, doomed.

Equative, Comparative, and Superlative

Pronouns

First and Second Person

Third Person

Pronouns

Proximal Demonstratives

Emphatic Demonstratives

Medial Demonstratives

Distal Demonstratives

Miscellaneous Demonstratives

Correlatives

Prepositions

With Accusative

With Dative

With Instrumental

With Locative

Verbs: Pronominal Enclitics

Verbs: AI

Example: bināt, bibe, bītos; beiassus, -ous, to punish.

Verbs: AII

Example: cambīt, cambīsset, cambitos; cambītus, –ous, to exchange.

Verbs: BI

Example: beret, bert, britos; bertā, -iās, to bear.

Example: brennet, bebronne, brentos; brennos, -ī, to burn.